Iron Homeostasis During Pregnancy: Maternal, Placental, and Fetal Regulatory Mechanisms.

Pregnancy entails a large negative balance of iron, an essential micronutrient. During pregnancy, iron requirements increase substantially to support both maternal red blood cell expansion and the development of the placenta and fetus. As insufficient iron has long been linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes, universal iron supplementation is common practice before and during pregnancy. However, in high-resource countries with iron fortification of staple foods and increased red meat consumption, the effects of too much iron supplementation during pregnancy have become a concern because iron excess has also been linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes. In this review, we address physiologic iron homeostasis of the mother, placenta, and fetus and discuss perturbations in iron homeostasis that result in pathological pregnancy. As many mechanistic regulatory systems have been deduced from animal models, we also discuss the principles learned from these models and how these may apply to human pregnancy.

Maternal prolactin or estrogen signaling in hepatocytes does not regulate iron homeostasis during pregnancy.

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Maternal hepcidin determines embryo iron homeostasis in mice.

Iron disorders are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, yet iron homeostatic mechanisms during pregnancy are poorly understood. In humans and rodents, the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin is profoundly decreased in pregnant mothers, which is thought to ensure adequate iron availability for transfer across placenta. However, the fetal liver also produces hepcidin, which may regulate fetal iron endowment by controlling placental iron export. To determine the relative contribution of maternal vs embryo hepcidin to the control of embryo iron endowment in iron-sufficient or iron-overloaded mice, we generated combinations of mothers and embryos that had or lacked hepcidin. We found that maternal, but not embryonic, hepcidin determined embryo and placental iron endowment in a healthy pregnancy. We further determined that inflammation can counteract pregnancy-dependent suppression of maternal hepcidin. To establish how essential maternal hepcidin suppression is for embryo iron homeostasis, we mimicked the range of maternal hepcidin activity by administering a hepcidin peptide mimetic to pregnant mice. This also allowed us to determine the effect of isolated maternal hepcidin excess on pregnancy, in the absence of other confounding effects of inflammation. Higher doses of hepcidin agonist caused maternal iron restriction and anemia, lower placenta and embryo weight, embryo anemia, and increased embryo mortality. Low agonist doses did not cause maternal anemia but still adversely affected the embryo, causing anemia, tissue iron deficiency (including in the brain), and decreased weight. Our studies demonstrate that suppression of maternal hepcidin during pregnancy is essential for maternal and embryo iron homeostasis and health.

Erythroferrone contributes to iron mobilization for embryo erythropoiesis in iron-deficient mouse pregnancies.

Erythroferrone (ERFE) is an erythroblast-secreted regulator of iron metabolism. The production of ERFE increases during stress erythropoiesis, leading to decreased hepcidin expression and mobilization of iron. Pregnancy requires a substantial increase in iron availability to sustain maternal erythropoietic expansion and fetal development and is commonly affected by iron deficiency. To define the role of ERFE during iron-replete or iron-deficient pregnancy, we utilized mouse models expressing a range of ERFE levels: transgenic (TG) mice overexpressing ERFE, wild-type (WT), and ERFE knockout (KO) mice. We altered maternal iron status using diets with low or standard iron content and performed the analysis at E18.5. Iron deficiency increased maternal ERFE in WT pregnancy. Comparing different maternal genotypes, ERFE TG dams had lower hepcidin relative to their liver iron load but similar hematological parameters to WT dams on either diet. In ERFE KO dams, most hematologic and iron parameters were comparable to WT, but mean corpuscular volume (MCV) was decreased under both iron conditions. Similar to dams, TG embryos had lower hepcidin on both diets, but their hematologic parameters did not differ from those of WT embryos. ERFE KO embryos had lower MCV than WT embryos on both diets. The effect was exacerbated under iron-deficient conditions where ERFE KO embryos had higher hepcidin, lower Hb and Hct, and lower brain iron concentration compared to WT embryos, indicative of iron restriction. Thus, under iron-deficient conditions, maternal and embryo ERFE facilitate iron mobilization for embryonic erythropoiesis.

Prepregnancy Obesity Does Not Impact Placental Iron Trafficking.

BACKGROUND: Iron is critical for fetal development. Neonates of obese women may be at risk for poor iron status at birth as a result of maternal inflammation-driven overexpression of hepcidin. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to determine differences in placental transfer of oral iron (57Fe) and expression of placental transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) and ferroportin (FPN) mRNA and protein and their association with maternal and neonatal iron-related parameters, including maternal hepcidin, among women with and without prepregnancy (PP) obesity. METHODS: 57Fe ingested during the third trimester of pregnancy was recovered in venous umbilical cord blood among 20 PP obese [BMI (in kg/m2): 30.5-43.9] and 22 nonobese (BMI: 18.5-29.0) women aged 17-39 y. Placental TFR1 and FPN mRNA and protein expression were quantified via qPCR and Western blot. Maternal and neonatal markers of iron status and regulation, as well as inflammation, were measured. Descriptive and inferential statistical tests (e.g., Student t test, Pearson correlation) were used for data analysis. RESULTS: There was no difference in cord blood enrichment of 57Fe or placental mRNA or protein expression of TFR1 or FPN among the women with and without PP obesity. Maternal hepcidin was not correlated with cord blood enrichment of 57Fe or placental FPN mRNA or protein expression. Maternal log ferritin (corrected for inflammation) was inversely correlated with log percent enrichment of 57Fe in cord blood (partial r = -0.50; P < 0.01, controlled for marital status) and protein expression of TFR1 (r = -0.43; P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Placental iron trafficking did not differ among women with and without PP obesity. Findings reinforce the importance of maternal iron stores in regulating placental iron trafficking.

The thrombopoietin receptor: revisiting the master regulator of platelet production.

Thrombopoietin (TPO) and its receptor, MPL, are the primary regulators of platelet production and critical for hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) maintenance. Since TPO was first cloned in 1994, the physiological and pathological roles of TPO and MPL have been well characterized, culminating in the first MPL agonists being approved for the treatment of chronic immune thrombocytopenia in 2008. Dysregulation of the TPO-MPL signaling axis contributes to the pathogenesis of hematological disorders: decreased expression or function results in severe thrombocytopenia progressing to bone marrow failure, while hyperactivation of MPL signaling, either by mutations in the receptor or associated Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), results in pathological myeloproliferation. Despite its importance, it was only recently that the long-running debate over the mechanism by which TPO binding activates MPL has been resolved. This review will cover key aspects of TPO and MPL structure and function and their importance in receptor activation, discuss how these are altered in hematological disorders and consider how a greater understanding could lead to the development of better-targeted and more efficacious therapies.

JAK2V617F-positive endothelial cells contribute to clotting abnormalities in myeloproliferative neoplasms.

The Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) V617F mutation is the primary pathogenic mutation in patients with Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). Although thrombohemorrhagic incidents are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with MPNs, the events causing these clotting abnormalities remain unclear. To identify the cells responsible for the dysfunctional hemostasis, we used transgenic mice expressing JAK2V617F in specific lineages involved in thrombosis and hemostasis. When JAK2V617F was expressed in both hematopoietic and endothelial cells (ECs), the mice developed a significant MPN, characterized by thrombocytosis, neutrophilia, and splenomegaly. However, despite having significantly higher platelet counts than controls, these mice showed severely attenuated thrombosis following injury. Interestingly, platelet activation and aggregation in response to agonists was unaltered by JAK2V617F expression. Subsequent bone marrow transplants revealed the contribution of both endothelial and hematopoietic compartments to the attenuated thrombosis. Furthermore, we identified a potential mechanism for this phenotype through JAK2V617F-regulated inhibition of von Willebrand factor (VWF) function and/or secretion. JAK2V617F(+) mice display a condition similar to acquired von Willebrand syndrome, exhibiting significantly less high molecular weight VWF and reduced agglutination to ristocetin. These findings greatly advance our understanding of thrombohemorrhagic events in MPNs and highlight the critical role of ECs in the pathology of hematopoietic malignancies.

The thrombopoietin receptor, MPL, is critical for development of a JAK2V617F-induced myeloproliferative neoplasm.

The most frequent contributing factor in Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) is the acquisition of a V617F mutation in Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Recent evidence has demonstrated that to drive MPN transformation, JAK2V617F needs to directly associate with a functional homodimeric type I cytokine receptor, suggesting that, although acquiring JAK2V617F may promote disease, there are additional cellular components necessary for MPN development. Here we show that loss of the thrombopoietin (TPO) receptor (MPL) significantly ameliorates MPN development in JAK2V617F(+) transgenic mice, whereas loss of TPO only mildly affects the disease phenotype. Specifically, compared with JAK2V617F(+) mice, JAK2V617F(+)Mpl(-/-) mice exhibited reduced thrombocythemia, neutrophilia, splenomegaly, and neoplastic stem cell pool. The importance of MPL is highlighted as JAK2V617FMpl(+/-) mice displayed a significantly reduced MPN phenotype, indicating that Mpl level may have a substantial effect on MPN development and severity. Splenomegaly and the increased neoplastic stem cell pool were retained in JAK2V617F(+)Tpo(-/-) mice, although thrombocytosis was reduced compared with JAK2V617F(+) mice. These results demonstrate that Mpl expression, but not Tpo, is fundamental in the development of JAK2V617F(+) MPNs, highlighting an entirely novel target for therapeutic intervention.

A novel activating, germline JAK2 mutation, JAK2R564Q, causes familial essential thrombocytosis.

Along with the most common mutation, JAK2V617F, several other acquired JAK2 mutations have now been shown to contribute to the pathogenesis of myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). However, here we describe for the first time a germline mutation that leads to familial thrombocytosis that involves a residue other than Val617. The novel mutation JAK2R564Q, identified in a family with autosomal dominant essential thrombocythemia, increased cell growth resulting from suppression of apoptosis in Ba/F3-MPL cells. Although JAK2R564Q and JAK2V617F have similar levels of increased kinase activity, the growth-promoting effects of JAK2R564Q are much milder than those of JAK2V617F because of at least 2 counterregulatory mechanisms. Whereas JAK2V617F can escape regulation by the suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 and p27/Kip1, JAK2R564Q-expressing cells cannot. Moreover, JAK2R564Q-expressing cells are much more sensitive to the JAK inhibitor, ruxolitinib, than JAK2V617F-expressers, suggesting that lower doses of this drug may be effective in treating patients with MPNs associated with alternative JAK2 mutations, allowing many undesirable adverse effects to be avoided. This work provides a greater understanding of the cellular effects of a non-JAK2V617F, MPN-associated JAK2 mutation; provides insights into new treatment strategies for such patients; and describes the first case of familial thrombosis caused by a JAK2 residue other than Val617.

Multiple Infections, Nutrient Deficiencies, and Inflammation as Determinants of Anemia and Iron Status during Pregnancy: The MINDI Cohort.

In pregnant women with multiple infections, nutrient deficiencies, and inflammation (MINDI), the study of anemia and iron status is limited. For this cross-sectional study (n = 213 Panamanian indigenous women), we investigated if hemoglobin, anemia (Hb < 110 g/L), ferritin, serum iron, serum transferrin receptor, and hepcidin were associated with (1) maternal nutritional status and supplementation practices, (2) biomarkers of inflammation, and (3) presence/absence of infections. Hierarchical generalized linear and logistic regression models and dominance analyses identified the relative importance of these predictors. Anemia (38%), which was likely underestimated due to low plasma volume (95%), was associated with lower ferritin, vitamin A, and weight-for-height, suggesting anemia of undernutrition. Inflammation was not associated with Hb or anemia; nevertheless, higher CRP was associated with increased odds of low serum iron and higher ferritin and hepcidin, indicating iron restriction due to inflammation. The length of iron supplementation did not enter models for anemia or iron indicators, but a multiple nutrient supplement was associated with higher ferritin and hepcidin. Moreover, iron supplementation was associated with higher odds of vaginal trichomoniasis but lower odds of caries and bacterial vaginosis. The complex pathogenesis of anemia and iron deficiency in MINDI settings may require other interventions beyond iron supplementation.

Ubiquitination and degradation of the thrombopoietin receptor c-Mpl.

Regulation of growth factor and cytokine signaling is essential for maintaining physiologic numbers of circulating hematopoietic cells. Thrombopoietin (Tpo), acting through its receptor c-Mpl, is required for hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and megakaryopoiesis. Therefore, the negative regulation of Tpo signaling is critical in many aspects of hematopoiesis. In this study, we determine the mechanisms of c-Mpl degradation in the negative regulation of Tpo signaling. We found that, after Tpo stimulation, c-Mpl is degraded by both the lysosomal and proteasomal pathways and c-Mpl is rapidly ubiquitinated. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we were able to determine that c-Mpl is ubiquitinated on both of its intracellular lysine (K) residues (K(553) and K(573)). By mutating these residues to arginine, ubiquitination and degradation were significantly reduced and caused hyperproliferation in cell lines expressing these mutated receptors. Using short interfering RNA and dominant negative overexpression, we also found that c-Cbl, which is activated by Tpo, acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase in the ubiquitination of c-Mpl. Our findings identify a previously unknown negative regulatory pathway for Tpo signaling that may significantly impact our understanding of the mechanisms affecting the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells and megakaryocytes.

Quantitating Iron Transport across the Mouse Placenta In Vivo using Nonradioactive Iron Isotopes.

Iron is essential for maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, with approximately 1 g of iron needed in humans to sustain a healthy pregnancy. Fetal iron endowment is entirely dependent on iron transfer across the placenta, and perturbations of this transfer can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes. In mice, measurement of iron fluxes across the placenta traditionally relied on radioactive iron isotopes, a highly sensitive but burdensome approach. Stable iron isotopes (57Fe and 58Fe) offer a nonradioactive alternative for use in human pregnancy studies. Under physiological conditions, transferrin-bound iron is the predominant form of iron taken up by the placenta. Thus, 58Fe-transferrin was prepared and injected intravenously in pregnant dams to directly assess placental iron transport and bypass maternal intestinal iron absorption as a confounding variable. Isotopic iron was quantitated in the placenta and mouse embryonic tissues by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). These methods can also be employed in other animal model systems of physiology or disease to quantify in vivo iron dynamics.

Multiple Indicators of Undernutrition, Infection, and Inflammation in Lactating Women Are Associated with Maternal Iron Status and Infant Anthropometry in Panama: The MINDI Cohort.

Maternal infections, nutrient deficiencies, and inflammation (MINDI) co-exist in lactating indigenous women in Panama, but their impact on maternal iron status and infant growth is unknown. For this secondary analysis of cross-sectional data of lactating mothers from our MINDI cohort, we investigated associations of MINDI variables with maternal anemia, elevated serum transferrin receptor (sTfR), low serum iron, hepcidin, ferritin, and infant weight-for-age (WAZ), length-for-age (LAZ), and head-circumference-for-age (HCAZ) Z-scores in 99 mother-infant dyads. A bootstrapping resampling procedure preselected covariates for inclusion in multivariable regressions models from chronic maternal infections and nutritional status [folate, vitamins A, D, retinol-binding protein (RBP), insulin-growth factor-1 (IGF-1)] and inflammation [C-reactive protein (CRP), cytokines, platelet indices] indicators. Anemia was prevalent (53.5%) but underestimated due to widespread low plasma volume (<2.2 L, 79.9%) and was associated with indicators of malnutrition [lower IGF-1, body mass index (BMI), vitamin D, and intake of green/leafy vegetables], but not inflammation. Higher CRP was associated with lower serum iron, and higher hepcidin and ferritin, whereas maternal platelets were associated with lower HCAZ (ß = −0.22), WAZ (ß = −0.17), and LAZ (ß = −0.17). Higher LAZ was also associated with maternal serum vitamin D (ß = 0.23), whereas maternal iron supplementation lowered LAZ (ß = −0.22). Assessment of iron status in this MINDI cohort is complex and supplementation strategies must consider consequences for both the mother and the infant.

Iron-dependent apoptosis causes embryotoxicity in inflamed and obese pregnancy.

Iron is essential for a healthy pregnancy, and iron supplementation is nearly universally recommended, regardless of maternal iron status. A signal of potential harm is the U-shaped association between maternal ferritin, a marker of iron stores, and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, ferritin is also induced by inflammation and may overestimate iron stores during inflammation or infection. In this study, we use mouse models to determine whether maternal iron loading, inflammation, or their interaction cause poor pregnancy outcomes. Only maternal exposure to both iron excess and inflammation, but not either condition alone, causes embryo malformations and demise. Maternal iron excess potentiates embryo injury during both LPS-induced acute inflammation and obesity-induced chronic mild inflammation. The adverse interaction depends on TNFα signaling, causes apoptosis of placental and embryo endothelium, and is prevented by anti-TNFα or antioxidant treatment. Our findings raise important questions about the safety of indiscriminate iron supplementation during pregnancy.

INTERGROWTH-21 Identifies High Prevalence of Low Symphysis-Fundal Height in Indigenous Pregnant Women Experiencing Multiple Infections, Nutrient Deficiencies, and Inflammation: The Maternal Infections, Nutrient Deficiencies, and Inflammation (MINDI) Cohort.

BACKGROUND: In the absence of ultrasound, symphysis-fundal height (SFH) can assess maternal-fetal well-being as it is associated with gestational age, fetal weight, and amniotic fluid volume. However, other modifiers of SFH, including maternal infections, nutrient deficiencies, and inflammation (MINDI), have not been widely explored. OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were 2-fold: 1) to assess prevalence of low SFH in indigenous Panamanian women using both Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO) and INTERGROWTH-21 standards and 2) to explore associations of SFH with maternal health indicators: infections (oral, skin, urogenital, nematode infections), nutrient deficiencies [protein and iron indicators (ferritin, serum iron, serum transferrin receptor, hepcidin), folate, and vitamins A, D, and B-12], and inflammation [leukocytes, C-reactive protein (CRP), cytokines]. METHODS: For this cross-sectional study, low-SFH-for-gestational-age was assessed using PAHO and INTERGROWTH <10th centile in 174 women at ≥16 weeks of gestation. Bootstrapping selected MINDI variables for inclusion in multivariable fractional polynomial (MFP) logistic regressions for low SFH. Associations of MINDI variables with hepcidin were also investigated. RESULTS: Prevalence of low SFH was 8% using PAHO, but using INTERGROWTH, 50.6% had SFH <10th centile, including 37.9% <3rd centile. Both PAHO-SFH <10th centile and INTERGROWTH-SFH <3rd centile were associated with higher hepcidin (OR = 1.12, P = 0.008, and OR = 3.04, P = 0.001, respectively) and with lower TNF-α (OR = 0.73, P = 0.012, and OR = 0.93, P = 0.015, respectively). Wood-smoke exposure increased the odds of PAHO-SFH <10th centile (OR = 1.19, P = 0.009), whereas higher BMI decreased the odds of INTERGROWTH-SFH <3rd centile (OR = 0.87, P = 0.012). Lower pulse pressure (OR = 0.90, P = 0.009) and lower inflammatory responses [lower lymphocytes (OR = 0.21, P = 0.026), IL-17 (OR = 0.89, P = 0.011)] distinguished SFH <3rd centile from SFH ≥3rd to <10th centiles using INTERGROWTH-21 standards. The MFP regression for hepcidin controlling for SFH (adjusted R 2 = 0.40, P = 0.001) revealed associations with indicators of inflammation (CRP, P < 0.0001; IL-17, P = 0.012), acidic urinary pH (P = 0.008), and higher intake of supplements (P = 0.035). CONCLUSIONS: Associations of low SFH with MINDI variables, including hepcidin, highlight its potential for early detection of multicausal in utero growth faltering.

The hepcidin regulator erythroferrone is a new member of the erythropoiesis-iron-bone circuitry.

Background: Erythroblast erythroferrone (ERFE) secretion inhibits hepcidin expression by sequestering several bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family members to increase iron availability for erythropoiesis. Methods: To address whether ERFE functions also in bone and whether the mechanism of ERFE action in bone involves BMPs, we utilize the Erfe-/- mouse model as well as ß-thalassemic (Hbbth3/+) mice with systemic loss of ERFE expression. In additional, we employ comprehensive skeletal phenotyping analyses as well as functional assays in vitro to address mechanistically the function of ERFE in bone. Results: We report that ERFE expression in osteoblasts is higher compared with erythroblasts, is independent of erythropoietin, and functional in suppressing hepatocyte hepcidin expression. Erfe-/- mice display low-bone-mass arising from increased bone resorption despite a concomitant increase in bone formation. Consistently, Erfe-/- osteoblasts exhibit enhanced mineralization, Sost and Rankl expression, and BMP-mediated signaling ex vivo. The ERFE effect on osteoclasts is mediated through increased osteoblastic RANKL and sclerostin expression, increasing osteoclastogenesis in Erfe-/- mice. Importantly, Erfe loss in Hbbth3/+mice, a disease model with increased ERFE expression, triggers profound osteoclastic bone resorption and bone loss. Conclusions: Together, ERFE exerts an osteoprotective effect by modulating BMP signaling in osteoblasts, decreasing RANKL production to limit osteoclastogenesis, and prevents excessive bone loss during expanded erythropoiesis in ß-thalassemia. Funding: YZG acknowledges the support of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) (R01 DK107670 to YZG and DK095112 to RF, SR, and YZG). MZ acknowledges the support of the National Institute on Aging (U19 AG60917) and NIDDK (R01 DK113627). TY acknowledges the support of the National Institute on Aging (R01 AG71870). SR acknowledges the support of NIDDK (R01 DK090554) and Commonwealth Universal Research Enhancement (CURE) Program Pennsylvania.

Effects of maternal iron status on placental and fetal iron homeostasis.

Iron deficiency is common worldwide and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The increasing prevalence of indiscriminate iron supplementation during pregnancy also raises concerns about the potential adverse effects of iron excess. We examined how maternal iron status affects the delivery of iron to the placenta and fetus. Using mouse models, we documented maternal homeostatic mechanisms that protect the placenta and fetus from maternal iron excess. We determined that under physiological conditions or in iron deficiency, fetal and placental hepcidin did not regulate fetal iron endowment. With maternal iron deficiency, critical transporters mediating placental iron uptake (transferrin receptor 1 [TFR1]) and export (ferroportin [FPN]) were strongly regulated. In mice, not only was TFR1 increased, but FPN was surprisingly decreased to preserve placental iron in the face of fetal iron deficiency. In human placentas from pregnancies with mild iron deficiency, TFR1 was increased, but there was no change in FPN. However, induction of more severe iron deficiency in human trophoblast in vitro resulted in the regulation of both TFR1 and FPN, similar to what was observed in the mouse model. This placental adaptation that prioritizes placental iron is mediated by iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) and is important for the maintenance of mitochondrial respiration, thus ultimately protecting the fetus from the potentially dire consequences of generalized placental dysfunction.

Fetal and amniotic fluid iron homeostasis in healthy and complicated murine, macaque, and human pregnancy.

Adequate iron supply during pregnancy is essential for fetal development. However, how fetal or amniotic fluid iron levels are regulated during healthy pregnancy, or pregnancies complicated by intraamniotic infection or inflammation (IAI), is unknown. We evaluated amniotic fluid and fetal iron homeostasis in normal and complicated murine, macaque, and human pregnancy. In mice, fetal iron endowment was affected by maternal iron status, but amniotic fluid iron concentrations changed little during maternal iron deficiency or excess. In murine and macaque models of inflamed pregnancy, the fetus responded to maternal systemic inflammation or IAI by rapidly upregulating hepcidin and lowering iron in fetal blood, without altering amniotic fluid iron. In humans, elevated cord blood hepcidin with accompanying hypoferremia was observed in pregnancies with antenatal exposure to IAI compared with those that were nonexposed. Hepcidin was also elevated in human amniotic fluid from pregnancies with IAI compared with those without IAI, but amniotic fluid iron levels did not differ between the groups. Our studies in mice, macaques, and humans demonstrate that amniotic fluid iron is largely unregulated but that the rapid induction of fetal hepcidin by inflammation and consequent fetal hypoferremia are conserved mechanisms that may be important in fetal host defense.

Placental iron transport: The mechanism and regulatory circuits.

As the interface between the fetal and maternal circulation, the placenta facilitates both nutrient and waste exchange for the developing fetus. Iron is essential for healthy pregnancy, and transport of iron across the placenta is required for fetal growth and development. Perturbation of this transfer can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Despite its importance, our understanding of how a large amount of iron is transported across placental membranes, how this process is regulated, and which iron transporter proteins function in different placental cells remains rudimentary. Mechanistic studies in mouse models, including placenta-specific deletion or overexpression of iron-related proteins will be essential to make progress. This review summarizes our current understanding about iron transport across the syncytiotrophoblast under physiological conditions and identifies areas for further investigation.