m6A modification of mutant huntingtin RNA promotes the biogenesis of pathogenic huntingtin transcripts.

In Huntington's disease (HD), aberrant processing of huntingtin (HTT) mRNA produces HTT1a transcripts that encode the pathogenic HTT exon 1 protein. The mechanisms behind HTT1a production are not fully understood. Considering the role of m6A in RNA processing and splicing, we investigated its involvement in HTT1a generation. Here, we show that m6A methylation is increased before the cryptic poly(A) sites (IpA1 and IpA2) within the huntingtin RNA in the striatum of Hdh+/Q111 mice and human HD samples. We further assessed m6A's role in mutant Htt mRNA processing by pharmacological inhibition and knockdown of METTL3, as well as targeted demethylation of Htt intron 1 using a dCas13-ALKBH5 system in HD mouse cells. Our data reveal that Htt1a transcript levels are regulated by both METTL3 and the methylation status of Htt intron 1. They also show that m6A methylation in intron 1 depends on expanded CAG repeats. Our findings highlight a potential role for m6A in aberrant splicing of Htt mRNA.

Huntingtin HTT1a is generated in a CAG repeat-length-dependent manner in human tissues.

BACKGROUND: The disease-causing mutation in Huntington disease (HD) is a CAG trinucleotide expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. The mutated CAG tract results in the production of a small RNA, HTT1a, coding for only exon 1 of HTT. HTT1a is generated by a block in the splicing reaction of HTT exon 1 to exon 2 followed by cleavage in intron 1 and polyadenylation. Translation of HTT1a leads to the expression of the highly toxic HTT exon 1 protein fragment. We have previously shown that the levels of HTT1a expression in mouse models of HD is dependent on the CAG repeat length. However, these data are lacking for human tissues. METHODS: To answer this question, we developed highly sensitive digital PCR assays to determine HTT1a levels in human samples. These assays allow the absolute quantification of transcript numbers and thus also facilitate the comparison of HTT1a levels between tissues, cell types and across different studies. Furthermore, we measured CAG repeat sizes for every sample used in the study. Finally, we analysed our data with ANOVA and linear modelling to determine the correlation of HTT1a expression levels with CAG repeat sizes. RESULTS: In summary, we show that HTT1a is indeed expressed in a CAG repeat-length-dependent manner in human post mortem brain tissues as well as in several peripheral cell types. In particular, PBMCs show a statistically significant positive correlation of HTT1a expression with CAG repeat length, and elevated HTT1a expression levels even in the adult-onset CAG repeat range. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that HTT1a expression occurs throughout a wide range of tissues and likely with all CAG lengths. Our data from peripheral sample sources demonstrate that HTT1a is indeed generated throughout the body in a CAG repeat-length-dependent manner. Therefore, the levels of HTT1a might be a sensitive marker of disease state and/or progression and should be monitored over time, especially in clinical trials targeting HTT expression.

Alternative processing of human HTT mRNA with implications for Huntington's disease therapeutics.

Huntington disease is caused by a CAG repeat expansion in exon 1 of the huntingtin gene (HTT) that is translated into a polyglutamine stretch in the huntingtin protein (HTT). We previously showed that HTT mRNA carrying an expanded CAG repeat was incompletely spliced to generate HTT1a, an exon 1 only transcript, which was translated to produce the highly aggregation-prone and pathogenic exon 1 HTT protein. This occurred in all knock-in mouse models of Huntington's disease and could be detected in patient cell lines and post-mortem brains. To extend these findings to a model system expressing human HTT, we took advantage of YAC128 mice that are transgenic for a yeast artificial chromosome carrying human HTT with an expanded CAG repeat. We discovered that the HTT1a transcript could be detected throughout the brains of YAC128 mice. We implemented RNAscope to visualize HTT transcripts at the single molecule level and found that full-length HTT and HTT1a were retained together in large nuclear RNA clusters, as well as being present as single transcripts in the cytoplasm. Homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence analysis demonstrated that the HTT1a transcript had been translated to produce the exon 1 HTT protein. The levels of exon 1 HTT in YAC128 mice, correlated with HTT aggregation, supportive of the hypothesis that exon 1 HTT initiates the aggregation process. Huntingtin-lowering strategies are a major focus of therapeutic development for Huntington's disease. These approaches often target full-length HTT alone and would not be expected to reduce pathogenic exon 1 HTT levels. We have established YAC128 mouse embryonic fibroblast lines and shown that, together with our QuantiGene multiplex assay, these provide an effective screening tool for agents that target HTT transcripts. The effects of current targeting strategies on nuclear RNA clusters are unknown, structures that may have a pathogenic role or alternatively could be protective by retaining HTT1a in the nucleus and preventing it from being translated. In light of recently halted antisense oligonucleotide trials, it is vital that agents targeting HTT1a are developed, and that the effects of HTT-lowering strategies on the subcellular levels of all HTT transcripts and their various HTT protein isoforms are understood.

Aberrant splicing of HTT generates the pathogenic exon 1 protein in Huntington disease.

Huntington disease (HD) is a devastating, late-onset, inherited neurodegenerative disorder that manifests with personality changes, movement disorders, and cognitive decline. It is caused by a CAG repeat expansion in exon 1 of the HTT gene that translates to a polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein (HTT). The formation of HTT fragments has been implicated as an essential step in the molecular pathogenesis of HD and several proteases that cleave HTT have been identified. However, the importance of smaller N-terminal fragments has been highlighted by their presence in HD postmortem brains and by the fact that nuclear inclusions are only detected by antibodies to the N terminus of HTT. Despite an intense research effort, the precise length of these fragments and the mechanism by which they are generated remains unknown. Here we show that CAG repeat length-dependent aberrant splicing of exon 1 HTT results in a short polyadenylated mRNA that is translated into an exon 1 HTT protein. Given that mutant exon 1 HTT proteins have consistently been shown to be highly pathogenic in HD mouse models, the aberrant splicing of HTT mRNA provides a mechanistic basis for the molecular pathogenesis of HD. RNA-targeted therapeutic strategies designed to lower the levels of HTT are under development. Many of these approaches would not prevent the production of exon 1 HTT and should be reviewed in light of our findings.

Early detection of exon 1 huntingtin aggregation in zQ175 brains by molecular and histological approaches.

Huntingtin-lowering approaches that target huntingtin expression are a major focus for therapeutic intervention for Huntington's disease. When the cytosine, adenine and guanine repeat is expanded, the huntingtin pre-mRNA is alternatively processed to generate the full-length huntingtin and HTT1a transcripts. HTT1a encodes the aggregation-prone and highly pathogenic exon 1 huntingtin protein. In evaluating huntingtin-lowering approaches, understanding how the targeting strategy modulates levels of both transcripts and the huntingtin protein isoforms that they encode will be essential. Given the aggregation-propensity of exon 1 huntingtin, the impact of a given strategy on the levels and subcellular location of aggregated huntingtin will need to be determined. We have developed and applied sensitive molecular approaches to monitor the levels of aggregated and soluble huntingtin isoforms in tissue lysates. We have used these, in combination with immunohistochemistry, to map the appearance and accumulation of aggregated huntingtin throughout the CNS of zQ175 mice, a model of Huntington's disease frequently chosen for preclinical studies. Aggregation analyses were performed on tissues from zQ175 and wild-type mice at monthly intervals from 1 to 6 months of age. We developed three homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence assays to track the accumulation of aggregated huntingtin and showed that two of these were specific for the exon 1 huntingtin protein. Collectively, the homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence assays detected huntingtin aggregation in the 10 zQ175 CNS regions by 1-2 months of age. Immunohistochemistry with the polyclonal S830 anti-huntingtin antibody showed that nuclear huntingtin aggregation, in the form of a diffuse nuclear immunostain, could be visualized in the striatum, hippocampal CA1 region and layer IV of the somatosensory cortex by 2 months. That this diffuse nuclear immunostain represented aggregated huntingtin was confirmed by immunohistochemistry with a polyglutamine-specific antibody, which required formic acid antigen retrieval to expose its epitope. By 6 months of age, nuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions were widely distributed throughout the brain. Homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence analysis showed that the comparative levels of soluble exon 1 huntingtin between CNS regions correlated with those for huntingtin aggregation. We found that soluble exon 1 huntingtin levels decreased over the 6-month period, whilst those of soluble full-length mutant huntingtin remained unchanged, data that were confirmed for the cortex by immunoprecipitation and western blotting. These data support the hypothesis that exon 1 huntingtin initiates the aggregation process in knock-in mouse models and pave the way for a detailed analysis of huntingtin aggregation in response to huntingtin-lowering treatments.

Identical oligomeric and fibrillar structures captured from the brains of R6/2 and knock-in mouse models of Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a late-onset neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized neuropathologically by the presence of neuropil aggregates and nuclear inclusions. However, the profile of aggregate structures that are present in the brains of HD patients or of HD mouse models and the relative contribution of specific aggregate structures to disease pathogenesis is unknown. We have used the Seprion ligand to develop a highly sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based method for quantifying aggregated polyglutamine in tissues from HD mouse models. We used a combination of electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) to investigate the aggregate structures isolated by the ligand. We found that the oligomeric, proto-fibrillar and fibrillar aggregates extracted from the brains of R6/2 and HdhQ150 knock-in mice were remarkably similar. Using AFM, we determined that the nanometre globular oligomers isolated from the brains of both mouse models have dimensions identical to those generated from recombinant huntingtin exon 1 proteins. Finally, antibodies that detect exon 1 Htt epitopes differentially recognize the ligand-captured material on SDS-PAGE gels. The Seprion-ligand ELISA provides an assay with good statistical power for use in preclinical pharmacodynamic therapeutic trials or to assess the effects of the genetic manipulation of potential therapeutic targets on aggregate load. This, together with the ability to identify a spectrum of aggregate species in HD mouse tissues, will contribute to our understanding of how these structures relate to the pathogenesis of HD and whether their formation can be manipulated for therapeutic benefit.

Proteolysis of mutant huntingtin produces an exon 1 fragment that accumulates as an aggregated protein in neuronal nuclei in Huntington disease.

Huntingtin proteolysis has been implicated in the molecular pathogenesis of Huntington disease (HD). Despite an intense effort, the identity of the pathogenic smallest N-terminal fragment has not been determined. Using a panel of anti-huntingtin antibodies, we employed an unbiased approach to generate proteolytic cleavage maps of mutant and wild-type huntingtin in the HdhQ150 knock-in mouse model of HD. We identified 14 prominent N-terminal fragments, which, in addition to the full-length protein, can be readily detected in cytoplasmic but not nuclear fractions. These fragments were detected at all ages and are not a consequence of the pathogenic process. We demonstrated that the smallest fragment is an exon 1 huntingtin protein, known to contain a potent nuclear export signal. Prior to the onset of behavioral phenotypes, the exon 1 protein, and possibly other small fragments, accumulate in neuronal nuclei in the form of a detergent insoluble complex, visualized as diffuse granular nuclear staining in tissue sections. This methodology can be used to validate the inhibition of specific proteases as therapeutic targets for HD by pharmacological or genetic approaches.

DNA instability in postmitotic neurons.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by a CAG repeat expansion that is unstable upon germ-line transmission and exhibits mosaicism in somatic tissues. We show that region-specific CAG repeat mosaicism profiles are conserved between several mouse models of HD and therefore develop in a predetermined manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these synchronous, radical changes in CAG repeat size occur in terminally differentiated neurons. In HD this ongoing mutation of the repeat continuously generates genetically distinct neuronal populations in the adult brain of mouse models and HD patients. The neuronal population of the striatum is particularly distinguished by a high rate of CAG repeat allele instability and expression driving the repeat upwards and would be expected to enhance its toxicity. In both mice and humans, neurons are distinguished from nonneuronal cells by expression of MSH3, which provides a permissive environment for genetic instability independent of pathology. The neuronal mutations described here accumulate to generate genetically discrete populations of cells in the absence of selection. This is in contrast to the traditional view in which genetically discrete cellular populations are generated by the sequence of random variation, selection, and clonal proliferation. We are unaware of any previous demonstration that mutations can occur in terminally differentiated neurons and provide a proof of principle that, dependent on a specific set of conditions, functional DNA polymorphisms can be produced in adult neurons.

Correlative light and electron microscopy suggests that mutant huntingtin dysregulates the endolysosomal pathway in presymptomatic Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a late onset, inherited neurodegenerative disorder for which early pathogenic events remain poorly understood. Here we show that mutant exon 1 HTT proteins are recruited to a subset of cytoplasmic aggregates in the cell bodies of neurons in brain sections from presymptomatic HD, but not wild-type, mice. This occurred in a disease stage and polyglutamine-length dependent manner. We successfully adapted a high-resolution correlative light and electron microscopy methodology, originally developed for mammalian and yeast cells, to allow us to correlate light microscopy and electron microscopy images on the same brain section within an accuracy of 100 nm. Using this approach, we identified these recruitment sites as single membrane bound, vesicle-rich endolysosomal organelles, specifically as (1) multivesicular bodies (MVBs), or amphisomes and (2) autolysosomes or residual bodies. The organelles were often found in close-proximity to phagophore-like structures. Immunogold labeling localized mutant HTT to non-fibrillar, electron lucent structures within the lumen of these organelles. In presymptomatic HD, the recruitment organelles were predominantly MVBs/amphisomes, whereas in late-stage HD, there were more autolysosomes or residual bodies. Electron tomograms indicated the fusion of small vesicles with the vacuole within the lumen, suggesting that MVBs develop into residual bodies. We found that markers of MVB-related exocytosis were depleted in presymptomatic mice and throughout the disease course. This suggests that endolysosomal homeostasis has moved away from exocytosis toward lysosome fusion and degradation, in response to the need to clear the chronically aggregating mutant HTT protein, and that this occurs at an early stage in HD pathogenesis.

Silencing Srsf6 does not modulate incomplete splicing of the huntingtin gene in Huntington's disease models.

We have previously shown that the incomplete splicing of exon 1 to exon 2 of the HTT gene results in the production of a small polyadenylated transcript (Httexon1) that encodes the highly pathogenic exon 1 HTT protein. There is evidence to suggest that the splicing factor SRSF6 is involved in the mechanism that underlies this aberrant splicing event. Therefore, we set out to test this hypothesis, by manipulating SRSF6 levels in Huntington's disease models in which an expanded CAG repeat had been knocked in to the endogenous Htt gene. We began by generating mice that were knocked out for Srsf6, and demonstrated that reduction of SRSF6 to 50% of wild type levels had no effect on incomplete splicing in zQ175 knockin mice. We found that nullizygosity for Srsf6 was embryonic lethal, and therefore, to decrease SRSF6 levels further, we established mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) from wild type, zQ175, and zQ175::Srsf6+/- mice and transfected them with an Srsf6 siRNA. The incomplete splicing of Htt was recapitulated in the MEFs and we demonstrated that ablation of SRSF6 did not modulate the levels of the Httexon1 transcript. We conclude that SRSF6 is not required for the incomplete splicing of HTT in Huntington's disease.

Subcellular Localization And Formation Of Huntingtin Aggregates Correlates With Symptom Onset And Progression In A Huntington'S Disease Model.

Huntington's disease is caused by the expansion of a CAG repeat within exon 1 of the HTT gene, which is unstable, leading to further expansion, the extent of which is brain region and peripheral tissue specific. The identification of DNA repair genes as genetic modifiers of Huntington's disease, that were known to abrogate somatic instability in Huntington's disease mouse models, demonstrated that somatic CAG expansion is central to disease pathogenesis, and that the CAG repeat threshold for pathogenesis in specific brain cells might not be known. We have previously shown that the HTT gene is incompletely spliced generating a small transcript that encodes the highly pathogenic exon 1 HTT protein. The longer the CAG repeat, the more of this toxic fragment is generated, providing a pathogenic consequence for somatic expansion. Here, we have used the R6/2 mouse model to investigate the molecular and behavioural consequences of expressing exon 1 HTT with 90 CAGs, a mutation that causes juvenile Huntington's disease, compared to R6/2 mice carrying ∼200 CAGs, a repeat expansion of a size rarely found in Huntington's disease patient's blood, but which has been detected in post-mortem brains as a consequence of somatic CAG repeat expansion. We show that nuclear aggregation occurred earlier in R6/2(CAG)90 mice and that this correlated with the onset of transcriptional dysregulation. Whereas in R6/2(CAG)200 mice, cytoplasmic aggregates accumulated rapidly and closely tracked with the progression of behavioural phenotypes and with end-stage disease. We find that aggregate species formed in the R6/2(CAG)90 brains have different properties to those in the R6/2(CAG)200 mice. Within the nucleus, they retain a diffuse punctate appearance throughout the course of the disease, can be partially solubilized by detergents and have a greater seeding potential in young mice. In contrast, aggregates from R6/2(CAG)200 brains polymerize into larger structures that appear as inclusion bodies. These data emphasize that a subcellular analysis, using multiple complementary approaches, must be undertaken in order to draw any conclusions about the relationship between HTT aggregation and the onset and progression of disease phenotypes.

Sensitive biochemical aggregate detection reveals aggregation onset before symptom development in cellular and murine models of Huntington's disease.

A CAG-repeat gene expansion translated into a pathogenic polyglutamine stretch at the N-terminus of huntingtin triggers Huntington's Disease. Mutated huntingtin is predicted to adopt toxic properties mainly if aggregation-prone N-terminal fragments are released by proteolysis. Huntingtin-aggregates are indeed a major hallmark of this disorder and could represent useful markers of disease-onset or progression. We designed a simple method for qualitative and quantitative characterization of aggregates. For this, we analyzed samples from in vitro and in vivo Huntington's Disease models by agarose gel electrophoresis and showed that in the brain of transgenic mice huntingtin-aggregates became larger as a function of disease progression. This appears to be a property of cytoplasmic but not nuclear aggregates. In cell cultures, treatment with Congo Red inhibited aggregate growth but not total load. Finally, we showed that in primary striatal neurons and in brains of R6/2 and HdhQ150 mice, the presence of aggregates preceded initiation of any other functional deficits. This observation argues for a pathogenic role of huntingtin-aggregation in Huntington's Disease. Our results emphasize that thorough analysis of huntingtin metabolism and aggregation is now feasible, thus significantly improving the power of studies assessing therapies designed to lower huntingtin levels or to interfere with its aggregation.

The Hdh(Q150/Q150) knock-in mouse model of HD and the R6/2 exon 1 model develop comparable and widespread molecular phenotypes.

The identification of the Huntington's disease (HD) mutation as a CAG/polyglutamine repeat expansion enabled the generation of transgenic rodent models and gene-targeted mouse models of HD. Of these, mice that are transgenic for an N-terminal huntingtin fragment have been used most extensively because they develop phenotypes with relatively early ages of onset and rapid disease progression. Although the fragment models have led to novel insights into the pathophysiology of HD, it is important that models expressing a mutant version of the full-length protein are analysed in parallel. We have generated congenic C57BL/6 and CBA strains for the HdhQ150 knock-in mouse model of HD so that homozygotes can be analysed on an F1 hybrid background. Although a significant impairment in grip strength could be detected from a very early age, the performance of these mice in the quantitative behavioural tests most frequently used in preclinical efficacy trials indicates that they are unlikely to be useful for preclinical screening using a battery of conventional tests. However, at 22 months of age, the Hdh(Q150/Q150) homozygotes showed unexpected widespread aggregate deposition throughout the brain, transcriptional dysregulation in the striatum and cerebellum and decreased levels of specific chaperones, all well-characterised molecular phenotypes present in R6/2 mice aged 12 weeks. Therefore, when strain background and CAG repeat length are controlled for, the knock-in and fragment models develop comparable phenotypes. This supports the continued use of the more high-throughput fragment models to identify mechanisms of pathogenesis and for preclinical screening.

Myostatin inhibition prevents skeletal muscle pathophysiology in Huntington's disease mice.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder of which skeletal muscle atrophy is a common feature, and multiple lines of evidence support a muscle-based pathophysiology in HD mouse models. Inhibition of myostatin signaling increases muscle mass, and therapeutic approaches based on this are in clinical development. We have used a soluble ActRIIB decoy receptor (ACVR2B/Fc) to test the effects of myostatin/activin A inhibition in the R6/2 mouse model of HD. Weekly administration from 5 to 11 weeks of age prevented body weight loss, skeletal muscle atrophy, muscle weakness, contractile abnormalities, the loss of functional motor units in EDL muscles and delayed end-stage disease. Inhibition of myostatin/activin A signaling activated transcriptional profiles to increase muscle mass in wild type and R6/2 mice but did little to modulate the extensive Huntington's disease-associated transcriptional dysregulation, consistent with treatment having little impact on HTT aggregation levels. Modalities that inhibit myostatin signaling are currently in clinical trials for a variety of indications, the outcomes of which will present the opportunity to assess the potential benefits of targeting this pathway in HD patients.

Altered chromatin architecture underlies progressive impairment of the heat shock response in mouse models of Huntington disease.

Huntington disease (HD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder for which there are no disease-modifying treatments. Previous studies have proposed that activation of the heat shock response (HSR) via the transcription factor heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) may be of therapeutic benefit. However, the effect of disease progression on the HSR and the therapeutic potential of this pathway are currently unknown. Here, we used a brain-penetrating HSP90 inhibitor and physiological, molecular, and behavioral readouts to demonstrate that pharmacological activation of HSF1 improves huntingtin aggregate load, motor performance, and other HD-related phenotypes in the R6/2 mouse model of HD. However, the beneficial effects of this treatment were transient and diminished with disease progression. Molecular analyses to understand the transient nature of these effects revealed altered chromatin architecture, reduced HSF1 binding, and impaired HSR accompanied disease progression in both the R6/2 transgenic and HdhQ150 knockin mouse models of HD. Taken together, our findings reveal that the HSR, a major inducible regulator of protein homeostasis and longevity, is disrupted in HD. Consequently, pharmacological induction of HSF1 as a therapeutic approach to HD is more complex than was previously anticipated.

Exendin-4 improves glycemic control, ameliorates brain and pancreatic pathologies, and extends survival in a mouse model of Huntington's disease.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to find an effective treatment for the genetic form of diabetes that is present in some Huntington's disease patients and in Huntington's disease mouse models. Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a polyglutamine expansion within the huntingtin protein. Huntington's disease patients exhibit neuronal dysfunction/degeneration, chorea, and progressive weight loss. Additionally, they suffer from abnormalities in energy metabolism affecting both the brain and periphery. Similarly to Huntington's disease patients, mice expressing the mutated human huntingtin protein also exhibit neurodegenerative changes, motor dysfunction, perturbed energy metabolism, and elevated blood glucose levels. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Huntington's disease mice were treated with an FDA-approved antidiabetic glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist, exendin-4 (Ex-4), to test whether euglycemia could be achieved, whether pancreatic dysfunction could be alleviated, and whether the mice showed any neurological benefit. Blood glucose and insulin levels and various appetite hormone concentrations were measured during the study. Additionally, motor performance and life span were quantified and mutant huntingtin (mhtt) aggregates were measured in both the pancreas and brain. RESULTS: Ex-4 treatment ameliorated abnormalities in peripheral glucose regulation and suppressed cellular pathology in both brain and pancreas in a mouse model of Huntington's disease. The treatment also improved motor function and extended the survival time of the Huntington's disease mice. These clinical improvements were correlated with reduced accumulation of mhtt protein aggregates in both islet and brain cells. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting both peripheral and neuronal deficits, Ex-4 is an attractive agent for therapeutic intervention in Huntington's disease patients suffering from diabetes.

Proteomic profiling of plasma in Huntington's disease reveals neuroinflammatory activation and biomarker candidates.

Huntington's disease (HD) causes widespread CNS changes and systemic abnormalities including endocrine and immune dysfunction. HD biomarkers are needed to power clinical trials of potential treatments. We used multiplatform proteomic profiling to reveal plasma changes with HD progression. Proteins of interest were evaluated using immunoblotting and ELISA in plasma from 2 populations, CSF and R6/2 mice. The identified proteins demonstrate neuroinflammation in HD and warrant further investigation as possible biomarkers.

Mutant huntingtin's effects on striatal gene expression in mice recapitulate changes observed in human Huntington's disease brain and do not differ with mutant huntingtin length or wild-type huntingtin dosage.

To test the hypotheses that mutant huntingtin protein length and wild-type huntingtin dosage have important effects on disease-related transcriptional dysfunction, we compared the changes in mRNA in seven genetic mouse models of Huntington's disease (HD) and postmortem human HD caudate. Transgenic models expressing short N-terminal fragments of mutant huntingtin (R6/1 and R6/2 mice) exhibited the most rapid effects on gene expression, consistent with previous studies. Although changes in the brains of knock-in and full-length transgenic models of HD took longer to appear, 15- and 22-month CHL2(Q150/Q150), 18-month Hdh(Q92/Q92) and 2-year-old YAC128 animals also exhibited significant HD-like mRNA signatures. Whereas it was expected that the expression of full-length huntingtin transprotein might result in unique gene expression changes compared with those caused by the expression of an N-terminal huntingtin fragment, no discernable differences between full-length and fragment models were detected. In addition, very high correlations between the signatures of mice expressing normal levels of wild-type huntingtin and mice in which the wild-type protein is absent suggest a limited effect of the wild-type protein to change basal gene expression or to influence the qualitative disease-related effect of mutant huntingtin. The combined analysis of mouse and human HD transcriptomes provides important temporal and mechanistic insights into the process by which mutant huntingtin kills striatal neurons. In addition, the discovery that several available lines of HD mice faithfully recapitulate the gene expression signature of the human disorder provides a novel aspect of validation with respect to their use in preclinical therapeutic trials.

Evaluation of the benzothiazole aggregation inhibitors riluzole and PGL-135 as therapeutics for Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited progressive neurological disorder for which there is no effective therapy. It is caused by a CAG/polyglutamine repeat expansion that leads to abnormal protein aggregation and deposition in the brain. Several compounds have been shown to disrupt the aggregation process in vitro, including a number of benzothiazoles. To further explore the therapeutic potential of the benzothiazole aggregation inhibitors, we assessed PGL-135 and riluzole in hippocampal slice cultures derived from the R6/2 mouse, confirming their ability to inhibit aggregation with an EC50 of 40 microM in this system. Preliminary pharmacological work showed that PGL-135 was metabolically unstable, and therefore, we conducted a preclinical trial in the R6/2 mouse with riluzole. At the maximum tolerated dose, we achieved steady-state riluzole levels of 100 microM in brain. However, this was insufficient to inhibit aggregation in vivo and we found no improvement in the disease phenotype.