YM750, an ACAT Inhibitor, Acts on Adrenocortical Cells to Inhibit Aldosterone Secretion Due to Depolarization.

Primary aldosteronism (PA) is considered the most common form of secondary hypertension, which is associated with excessive aldosterone secretion in the adrenal cortex. The cause of excessive aldosterone secretion is the induction of aldosterone synthase gene (CYP11B2) expression by depolarization of adrenocortical cells. In this study, we found that YM750, an Acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) inhibitor, acts on adrenocortical cells to suppress CYP11B2 gene expression and aldosterone secretion. YM750 inhibited the induction of CYP11B2 gene expression by KCl stimulation, but not by angiotensin II and forskolin stimulation. Interestingly, YM750 did not inhibit KCl-stimulated depolarization via an increase in intracellular calcium ion concentration. Moreover, ACAT1 expression was relatively abundant in the zona glomerulosa (ZG) including these CYP11B2-positive cells. Thus, YM750 suppresses CYP11B2 gene expression by suppressing intracellular signaling activated by depolarization. In addition, ACAT1 was suggested to play an important role in steroidogenesis in the ZG. YM750 suppresses CYP11B2 gene expression and aldosterone secretion in the adrenal cortex, suggesting that it may be a potential therapeutic agent for PA.

The establishment of a novel high-throughput screening system using RNA-guided genome editing to identify chemicals that suppress aldosterone synthase expression.

Aldosterone is synthesized in the adrenal by the aldosterone synthase CYP11B2. Although the control of CYP11B2 expression is important to maintain the mineral homeostasis, its overexpression induced by the depolarization-induced calcium (Ca2+) signaling activation has been reported to increase the synthesis of aldosterone in primary aldosteronism (PA). The drug against PA focused on the suppression of CYP11B2 expression has not yet been developed, since the molecular mechanism of CYP11B2 transcriptional regulation activated via Ca2+ signaling remains unclear. To address the issue, we attempted to reveal the mechanism of the transcriptional regulation of CYP11B2 using chemical screening. We generated a cell line by inserting Nanoluc gene as a reporter into CYP11B2 locus in H295R adrenocortical cells using the CRSPR/Cas9 system, and established the high-throughput screening system using the cell line. We then identified 9 compounds that inhibited the CYP11B2 expression induced by potassium-mediated depolarization from the validated compound library (3399 compounds). Particularly, tacrolimus, an inhibitor of phosphatase calcineurin, strongly suppressed the CYP11B2 expression even at 10 nM. These results suggest that the system is effective in identifying drugs that suppress the depolarization-induced CYP11B2 expression. Our screening system may therefore be a useful tool for the development of novel medicines against PA.

Comparative proteomic analysis to identify the novel target gene of angiotensin II in adrenocortical H295R cells.

Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a well-known peptide that maintains the balance of electrolytes in the higher vertebrates. Ang II stimulation in the adrenal gland induces the synthesis of mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone, through the up-regulation of aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) gene expression. Additionally, it has been reported that Ang II activates multiple signaling pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Ca2+ signaling. Although Ang II has various effects on the cellular signaling in the adrenal cells, its biological significance, except for the aldosterone synthesis, is still unclear. In this study, we attempted to search the novel target gene(s) of Ang II in the human adrenal H295R cells using a proteomic approach combined with stable isotopic labeling using amino acid in cell culture (SILAC). Interestingly, we found that Ang II stimulation elevated the expression of phosphofructokinase type platelet (PFKP) in both protein and mRNA levels. Moreover, transactivation of PFKP by Ang II was dependent on extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 activation. Finally, we observed that Ang II treatment facilitated glucose uptake in the H295R cells. Taken together, we here identified PFKP as a novel target gene of Ang II, indicating that Ang II not only stimulates steroidogenesis but also affects glucose metabolism.

A ubiquitin-proteasome inhibitor bortezomib suppresses the expression of CYP11B2, a key enzyme of aldosterone synthesis.

CYP11B2 is a key enzyme involved in the synthesis of the mineralocorticoid aldosterone. CYP11B2 expression in the adrenal glands is controlled by the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), and plays an important role in the maintenance of electrolyte metabolism in higher organisms. Abnormal overexpression of CYP11B2 results in the disruption of mineral balance and can lead to hypertension. Though the molecular mechanism of the regulation of CYP11B2 expression has remained elusive, we hypothesize that compounds that prevent CYP11B2 expression could represent a novel class of antihypertensive drugs. In this study, we established a high-throughput screening system to identify such compounds, and subsequently carried out chemical screening. We found that the ubiquitin-proteasome inhibitor bortezomib could suppress CYP11B2 expression and secretion of aldosterone induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) in adrenocortical H295R cells. Moreover, bortezomib down-regulated the Cyp11b2 mRNA expression facilitated in the adrenal gland of Tsukuba hypertensive mice, resulting in subsequent lowering of their blood pressures. Furthermore, we observed the characteristic alteration of H3K27ac in the adrenal CYP11B2 gene promoter induced by Ang II stimulation, which was found to be disrupted by bortezomib. Taken together, these results suggest the possibility of developing novel antihypertensive drugs that prevent CYP11B2 expression.

Retinoic acid receptor-α up-regulates proopiomelanocortin gene expression in AtT20 corticotroph cells.

Cushing's disease is a disorder caused by excessive ACTH secretion from a corticotroph tumor of the pituitary gland. Although its standard therapy is a transsphenoidal surgery, innovation of novel medical treatments for the disease is urgently necessary. Retinoic acid (RA) has been reported to suppress adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion in Cushing's disease. However, the role of RA receptor (RAR) in proopiomelanocortin (Pomc) gene expression remains uncertain. We here examined the involvement of RARα in Pomc regulation using AtT20 corticotroph cells. Surprisingly, a synthetic RARα agonist Am80 increased Pomc mRNA expression, CRH-induced ACTH secretion, and Pomc promoter activity. Small interfering RNA-mediated RARα-knockdown suppressed both basal and Am80-induced Pomc promoter activity. RARα-overexpression dose-dependently increased Pomc promoter activity. Pomc promoter mutation analysis revealed that both Tpit and NeuroD1 binding elements were responsible for the Am80-mediated effect. Am80 increased Tpit expression while RAR antagonist LE540 suppressed the increase. Tpit-overexpression increased Pomc promoter activity. Mammalian two-hybrid assay revealed that Am80 induced NeuroD1-RARα interaction. NeuroD1-overexpression enhanced the Am80-induced Pomc promoter activity, which was suppressed by NeuroD1 truncated mutant-overexpression. RARα thus positively regulates ACTH secretion/Pomc gene expression through interaction with NeuroD1 and Tpit expression increase. The present observation will be useful for the future development of the RA/retinoid-derived therapeutics of the disease.

A case of autoimmune hepatitis with Graves' disease treated by propylthiouracil.

A 58-year-old woman was referred to our hospital because of liver dysfunction. Her serum levels of AST (619 IU/l) and ALT (603 IU/l) had increased. Histological findings in the liver biopsy were compatible to autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), and the diagnosis of AIH was confirmed by the diagnostic criteria. She was admitted to a nearby hospital 3 years ago, and diagnosed with Graves' disease. She received methimazole (MMI) at first, which was discontinued due to liver injury in one month, then propylthiouracil (PTU) was administered. One year later, transaminase increased and was decreased by stopping PTU administration. PTU was restarted after her transaminase decreased, but a recurrence of hepatotoxicity was observed, and she was referred to our hospital. Oral prednisolone decreased liver function immediately. In this case, PTU-induced liver injury was suspected as a possible trigger of AIH. While PTU remains a commonly used drug in the treatment of hyperthyroidism, severe liver injury is reported in some cases. If liver injury is observed in patients treated with PTU, rechallenge is not recommended in order to avoid severe hepatotoxicity.

Effects of Adipocyte-derived Factors on the Adrenal Cortex.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Obesity is highly complicated by hypertension and hyperglycemia. In particular, it has been proposed that obesity-related hypertension is caused by adipocyte-derived factors that are recognized as undetermined proteins secreted from adipocytes. Adipocyte-derived factors have been known to be related to aldosterone secretion in the adrenal gland. So far, Wnt proteins, CTRP-1, VLDL, LDL, HDL and leptin have been demonstrated to stimulate aldosterone secretion. In contrast, it has not yet been clarified whether adipocyte-derived factors also affect adrenal cortisol secretion. METHODS AND RESULTS: In the present study, we investigated the effect of adipocyte-derived factors on cortisol synthase gene CYP11B1 mRNA expression in vitro study using adrenocortical carcinoma H295R cells and mouse fibroblast 3T3-L1cells. Interestingly, adipocyte-derived factors were demonstrated to have the ability to stimulate CYP11B1 mRNA expression. CONCLUSION: Since CYP11B1 is well known as a limiting enzyme of cortisol synthesis, our study suggests that adipocyte-derived factors may stimulate cortisol secretion, as well as aldosterone secretion. Taken together, adipocyte-derived factors may be the cause of metabolic syndrome due to their stimulating effects on aldosterone/cortisol secretion. Therefore, the innovation of novel drugs against them may possibly be a new approach against metabolic syndrome.

Glucocorticoids increase neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide gene expression via adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase signaling in the arcuate nucleus of rats.

Recent studies suggest that the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling in the hypothalamus is the master regulator of energy balance. We reported in previous studies that glucocorticoids play a permissive role in the regulation of orexigenic neuropeptide Y (Npy) gene expression in the arcuate nucleus. In this study, we examined whether any cross talk occurs between glucocorticoids and AMPK signaling in the hypothalamus to regulate Npy as well as agouti-related peptide (Agrp) gene expression in the arcuate nucleus. In the hypothalamic organotypic cultures, the addition to the medium of the AMPK activator, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-b-d-ribofuranoside, increased phosphorylated AMPK (p-AMPK) as well as phosphorylated acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (p-ACC) in the explants, accompanied by significant increases in Npy and Agrp gene expression in the arcuate nucleus. The incubation with dexamethasone (DEX) also activated AMPK signaling in the explants, accompanied by significant increases in Npy and Agrp gene expression in the arcuate nucleus. The addition of the AMPK inhibitor compound C to the medium, which blocked increases of p-AMPK and p-ACC by DEX, significantly attenuated Npy and Agrp gene expression stimulated by DEX. Furthermore, p-AMPK and p-ACC levels in the arcuate nucleus were significantly decreased in adrenalectomized rats compared with sham-operated rats, and a replacement of glucocorticoids reversed the AMPK signaling in adrenalectomized rats. Thus, our data demonstrated that glucocorticoids up-regulate the Npy and Agrp gene expression in the arcuate nucleus through AMPK signaling, suggesting that the activation of the hypothalamic APMK signaling by glucocorticoids might be essential to the energy homeostasis.

Direct and indirect modulation of neuropeptide Y gene expression in response to hypoglycemia in rat arcuate nucleus.

Expression of neuropeptide Y (Npy) heteronuclear (hn) RNA, an indicator of gene transcription, was significantly increased in the arcuate nucleus of rats 30min after insulin injection. Npy hnRNA levels were also increased significantly in response to hypoglycemia in rats in which the hypothalamus was deafferentated, although the absolute levels were significantly lower than in sham-operated rats. Direct effects of lowering glucose levels on Npy gene expression were also confirmed in hypothalamic organotypic cultures. Thus, Npy gene transcription in the arcuate nucleus increases rapidly in response to hypoglycemia, and both direct and indirect inputs are involved in the rapid upregulation.

Osteopontin is dispensable for protection against high load systemic fungal infection.

Osteopontin (OPN) is a multi-functional cytokine which is involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. We previously reported that thrombin-cleaved form of OPN plays a pathogenic role in murine model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) by using neutralizing antibody (M5) reacting against the cryptic epitope within OPN, exposed by thrombin cleavage of OPN. It has been shown that OPN-deficient mice are susceptible to various infections, demonstrating the protective role of OPN against various infectious diseases. However, it remains to be clarified whether and how OPN is involved in protection against systemic fungal infection. In a murine model of systemic fungal infection, OPN-deficient mice showed the increase in the susceptibility to low load, but not to high load fungal infection, indicating the protective of OPN against mild or severe forms of infections. However, mice treatment with M5 antibody did not alter the susceptibility to both high and low load fungal infection. These experiments suggest that in sharp contrast to the complete abrogation of OPN expression in OPN-deficient mice, the neutralization of OPN by antibody against thrombin-cleaved form of OPN does not interfere with the host defense against high and low load fungal infection. These findings suggest that the neutralizing antibody which is specific for the epitope of thrombin-cleaved OPN may become an attractive therapeutic means for the treatment of RA without interfering host defense system.

Peripherally administered baclofen reduced food intake and body weight in db/db as well as diet-induced obese mice.

Peripheral administration of baclofen significantly reduced food intake and body weight increase in both diabetic (db/db) and diet-induced obese mice for 5 weeks, whereas it had no significant effects on energy balance in their lean control mice. Despite the decreased body weight, neuropeptide Y expression in the arcuate nucleus was significantly decreased, whereas pro-opiomelanocortin expression was significantly increased by baclofen treatment. These data demonstrate that the inhibitory effects of baclofen on body weight in the obese mice were mediated via the arcuate nucleus at least partially, and suggest that GABA(B) agonists could be a new therapeutic reagent for obesity.

Central administration of melanocortin agonist increased insulin sensitivity in diet-induced obese rats.

In this study, we examined the effects of intracerebroventricular administration of melanotan II (MTII), a melanocortin agonist, on insulin sensitivity in diet-induced obese (DIO) rats. Although MTII treatment significantly decreased food intake and body weight for 10 days, there was no significant difference in body weight between MTII and pair-fed groups. The insulin tolerance test showed that insulin sensitivity was significantly improved in the MTII group compared to the pair-fed group. Furthermore, MTII treatment increased the number of small-sized adipocytes in epididymal white adipose tissues, suggesting that MTII increased insulin sensitivity through action on the white adipose tissues in DIO rats.

High glucose stimulates expression of aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) and secretion of aldosterone in human adrenal cells.

Aldosterone synthase is the key rate-limiting enzyme in adrenal aldosterone production, and induction of its gene (CYP11B2) results in the progression of hypertension. As hypertension is a frequent complication among patients with diabetes, we set out to elucidate the link between diabetes mellitus and hypertension. We examined the effects of high glucose on CYP11B2 expression and aldosterone production using human adrenal H295R cells and a stable H295R cell line expressing a CYP11B2 5'-flanking region/luciferase cDNA chimeric construct. d-glucose (d-glu), but not its enantiomer l-glucose, dose dependently induced CYP11B2 transcription and mRNA expression. A high concentration (450 mg·dL-1) of d-glu time dependently induced CYP11B2 transcription and mRNA expression. Moreover, high glucose stimulated secretion of aldosterone into the media. Transient transfection studies using deletion mutants/nerve growth factor-induced clone B (NGFIB) response element 1 (NBRE-1) point mutant of CYP11B2 5'-flanking region revealed that the NBRE-1 element, known to be activated by transcription factors NGFIB and NURR1, was responsible for the high glucose-mediated effect. High glucose also induced the mRNA expression of these transcription factors, especially that of NURR1, but NURR1 knockdown using its siRNA did not affect high glucose-induced CYP11B2 mRNA expression. Taken together, it is speculated that high glucose may induce CYP11B2 transcription via the NBRE-1 element in its 5'-flanking region, resulting in the increase in aldosterone production although high glucose-induced NURR1 is not directly involved in the effect. Additionally, glucose metabolism and calcium channels were found to be involved in the high glucose effect. Our observations suggest one possible explanation for the high incidence of hypertension in patients with diabetes.

Insulin inhibits neuropeptide Y gene expression in the arcuate nucleus through GABAergic systems.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the arcuate nucleus is an orexigenic hormone of which levels are regulated by humoral as well as neural signals. In this study, we examined the regulation of NPY gene expression in the arcuate nucleus in hypothalamic organotypic cultures. Dexamethasone (DEX) (10(-9) to 10(-7) M) significantly increased NPY mRNA expression, and the effects were not influenced by coincubation with the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX), indicating that the action of DEX is independent of action potentials. Conversely, insulin (10(-11) to 10(-9) M) significantly inhibited NPY expression stimulated by DEX, and the inhibitory action of insulin was abolished in the presence of TTX. Because GABA and its receptors are expressed in the arcuate nucleus in vivo, we examined whether GABAergic systems were involved in the insulin action. The GABAB agonist baclofen significantly inhibited NPY expression stimulated by DEX, and the inhibitory action of insulin was completely abolished in the presence of either the GABAA antagonist bicuculline or the GABAB antagonist CGP35348 (p-3-aminopropyl-p-diethoxymethyl phosphoric acid). Furthermore, increases in the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) mRNA expression preceded decreases in NPY mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus in the cultures. Experiments in vivo also demonstrated that increases in GAD65 mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus preceded decreases in the NPY mRNA expression in a fasting-refeeding paradigm and that intracerebroventricular injection of insulin increased GAD65 mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus in fasted rats. These data suggest that insulin inhibits NPY gene expression in the arcuate nucleus through GABAergic systems.

Ghrelin increases neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide gene expression in the arcuate nucleus in rat hypothalamic organotypic cultures.

Ghrelin, which was identified from the rat stomach, is a potent stimulant for food intake. Several lines of evidence suggest that the orexigenic action of ghrelin is mediated via the neuropeptide Y (NPY) neurons in the arcuate nucleus, although the detailed mechanisms by which ghrelin stimulates NPY neurons are not clear. In this study, we examined the gene regulation of NPY and agouti-related peptide (AGRP), another orexigenic peptide synthesized in the NPY neurons, in the arcuate nucleus by ghrelin in hypothalamic organotypic cultures. Incubation of the hypothalamic explants with ghrelin significantly increased NPY and AGRP mRNA expression in the presence, but not absence, of dexamethasone. Glucocorticoids were also necessary for ghrelin action in vivo because an intracerebroventricular injection of ghrelin significantly increased NPY and AGRP mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus only in sham-operated, but not in adrenalectomized rats. The stimulatory effects of ghrelin on gene expression were not blocked by a sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin in the organotypic cultures. Ghrelin also increased NPY heteronuclear (hn) RNA expression, the first transcript that has been used as an indicator for gene transcription. The stimulatory effects of ghrelin on NPY gene expression were abolished in the presence of cycloheximide, which blocks translation, suggesting that de novo protein synthesis is required for ghrelin action. These data suggest that ghrelin stimulates NPY and AGRP gene expression independently of action potentials only in the presence of glucocorticoids. Furthermore, our data demonstrate stimulatory action of ghrelin on NPY gene transcription, which requires de novo protein synthesis.

Successful treatment of a 2-year-old girl with intractable myasthenia gravis using tacrolimus.

We used tacrolimus to successfully treat a patient with childhood-onset oropharyngeal myasthenia gravis (MG). A girl (2 years, 5 months old) with oropharyngeal MG responded partially to treatment including pyridostigmine bromide, intravenous immunoglobulin, and prednisolone (2 mg/kg/day) for 7 weeks, but this resulted in worsening of her eye symptoms. By contrast, tacrolimus at 2 mg/day resulted in complete remission of the MG, which made it possible to reduce the dose of prednisolone. This is a rare report of the use of tacrolimus as an effective treatment for patients with intractable childhood-onset MG.

FR227673 and FR190293, novel antifungal lipopeptides from Chalara sp. No. 22210 and tolypocladium parasiticum No. 16616.

Novel antifungal lipopeptides, FR227673 and FR190293, were isolated from the fermentation broths of fungal strains Chalara sp. No. 22210 and Tolypocladium parasiticum No. 16616, respectively. These compounds have the same cyclic peptide nuclear structure as FR901379, with different side chains, and showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans attributed to inhibition of 1,3-beta-glucan synthesis.

Hydroxylation of methylated DNA by TET1 in chondrocyte differentiation of C3H10T1/2 cells.

DNA methylation is closely involved in the regulation of cellular differentiation, including chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. Recent studies showed that Ten-eleven translocation (TET) family proteins converted 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5-formylcytosine and 5carboxylcytosine by oxidation. These reactions constitute potential mechanisms for active demethylation of methylated DNA. However, the relationship between the DNA methylation patterns and the effects of TET family proteins in chondrocyte differentiation is still unclear. In this study, we showed that DNA hydroxylation of 5mC was increased during chondrocytic differentiation of C3H10T1/2 cells and that the expression of Tet1 was particularly enhanced. Moreover, knockdown experiments revealed that the downregulation of Tet1 expression caused decreases in chondrogenesis markers such as type 2 and type 10 collagens. Furthermore, we found that TET proteins had a site preference for hydroxylation of 5mC on the Insulin-like growth factor 1 (Igf1) promoter in chondrocytes. Taken together, we showed that the expression of Tet1 was specifically facilitated in chondrocyte differentiation and Tet1 can regulate chondrocyte marker gene expression presumably through its hydroxylation activity for DNA.

Regulation of vasopressin gene expression by cAMP and glucocorticoids in parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus in rat hypothalamic organotypic cultures.

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is known to play an important role in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. In the present study, we examined how cAMP and glucocorticoids regulate AVP gene expression in the parvocellular neurons of the PVN in rat hypothalamic organotypic cultures with in situ hybridization. AVP heteronuclear (hn) RNA, an indicator for gene transcription, was induced in the PVN with incubation of forskolin as reported previously, and AVP mRNA was increased by forskolin in the presence of the gene transcription inhibitor 5,6-dichloro-1-D-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole (DRB). These data indicate that cAMP could increase not only gene transcription but also mRNA stability. Dexamethasone treatment, in contrast, significantly decreased AVP mRNA expression levels in the PVN, but this inhibitory action was abolished in the presence of DRB or the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX). However, when the hypothalamic slices were treated with forskolin, dexamethasone decreased AVP mRNA expression even in the presence of DRB and/or TTX. Furthermore, AVP hnRNA expression induced by forskolin was attenuated by dexamethasone treatment in the presence of TTX. These data indicate that dexamethasone could act on AVP cells independently of action potentials to decrease mRNA stability and to suppress AVP gene transcription during stimulation by cAMP. Thus, it was demonstrated that: (1) cAMP upregulates AVP gene transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally, (2) the mode of action of glucocorticoids was dependent on whether the cells were stimulated by cAMP, and (3) the interactions between cAMP and glucocorticoids encompass both gene transcription and mRNA stability.

Histamine H1 antagonists block M-currents in dissociated rat cortical neurons.

We investigated the effects of histamine H1 antagonists on acutely dissociated neurons from the rat cortex using the patch-clamp technique. First-generation antihistamines, such as pyrilamine, d-chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine, and ketotifen, suppressed M-currents in a concentration-dependent manner with respective half-inhibition concentrations (C50) of 35.9, 48.5, 34.8, and 47.8 microM at a holding potential of -26.5 mV. Astemizole, a second-generation antihistamine, inhibited M-currents with a C50 of 18.1 microM, but cetirizine did not do so, up to a concentration of 300 microM. Neither ranitidine nor cimetidine, both H2 antagonists, suppressed M-currents. The C50 of pyrilamine significantly decreased with membrane hyperpolarization, suggesting that it acts directly on M channel pores. The inhibition of M channels may be involved in the neurotoxic effects of histamine H1 antagonist overdose.