An Optochemical Oxygen Scavenger Enabling Spatiotemporal Control of Hypoxia.

We present an optochemical O2 scavenging system that enables precise spatiotemporal control of the level of hypoxia in living cells simply by adjusting the light intensity in the illuminated region. The system employs rhodamine containing a selenium or tellurium atom as an optochemical oxygen scavenger that rapidly consumes O2 by photochemical reaction with glutathione as a coreductant upon visible light irradiation (560-590 nm) and has a rapid response time, within a few minutes. The glutathione-consuming quantum yields of the system were calculated as about 5 %. The spatiotemporal O2 consuming in cultured cells was visualized with a hypoxia-responsive fluorescence probe, MAR. Phosphorescence lifetime imaging was applied to confirmed that different light intensities could generate different levels of hypoxia. To illustrate the potential utility of this system for hypoxia research, we show that it can spatiotemporally control calcium ion (Ca2+ ) influx into HEK293T cells expressing the hypoxia-responsive Ca2+ channel TRPA1.

PlexinD1 signaling controls morphological changes and migration termination in newborn neurons.

Newborn neurons maintain a very simple, bipolar shape, while they migrate from their birthplace toward their destinations in the brain, where they differentiate into mature neurons with complex dendritic morphologies. Here, we report a mechanism by which the termination of neuronal migration is maintained in the postnatal olfactory bulb (OB). During neuronal deceleration in the OB, newborn neurons transiently extend a protrusion from the proximal part of their leading process in the resting phase, which we refer to as a filopodium-like lateral protrusion (FLP). The FLP formation is induced by PlexinD1 downregulation and local Rac1 activation, which coincide with microtubule reorganization and the pausing of somal translocation. The somal translocation of resting neurons is suppressed by microtubule polymerization within the FLP The timing of neuronal migration termination, controlled by Sema3E-PlexinD1-Rac1 signaling, influences the final positioning, dendritic patterns, and functions of the neurons in the OB These results suggest that PlexinD1 signaling controls FLP formation and the termination of neuronal migration through a precise control of microtubule dynamics.

Dynamic Changes in the Neurogenic Potential in the Ventricular-Subventricular Zone of Common Marmoset during Postnatal Brain Development.

Even after birth, neuronal production continues in the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) and hippocampus in many mammals. The immature new neurons ("neuroblasts") migrate and then mature at their final destination. In humans, neuroblast production and migration toward the neocortex and the olfactory bulb (OB) occur actively only for a few months after birth and then sharply decline with age. However, the precise spatiotemporal profiles and fates of postnatally born neurons remain unclear due to methodological limitations. We previously found that common marmosets, small nonhuman primates, share many features of V-SVZ organization with humans. Here, using marmosets injected with thymidine analogue(s) during various postnatal periods, we demonstrated spatiotemporal changes in neurogenesis during development. V-SVZ progenitor proliferation and neuroblast migration toward the OB and neocortex sharply decreased by 4 months, most strikingly in a V-SVZ subregion from which neuroblasts migrated toward the neocortex. Postnatally born neurons matured within a few months in the OB and hippocampus but remained immature until 6 months in the neocortex. While neurogenic activity was sustained for a month after birth, the distribution and/or differentiation diversity was more restricted in 1-month-born cells than in the neonatal-born population. These findings shed light on distinctive features of postnatal neurogenesis in primates.

Dynamic Changes in Ultrastructure of the Primary Cilium in Migrating Neuroblasts in the Postnatal Brain.

New neurons, referred to as neuroblasts, are continuously generated in the ventricular-subventricular zone of the brain throughout an animal's life. These neuroblasts are characterized by their unique potential for proliferation, formation of chain-like cell aggregates, and long-distance and high-speed migration through the rostral migratory stream (RMS) toward the olfactory bulb (OB), where they decelerate and differentiate into mature interneurons. The dynamic changes of ultrastructural features in postnatal-born neuroblasts during migration are not yet fully understood. Here we report the presence of a primary cilium, and its ultrastructural morphology and spatiotemporal dynamics, in migrating neuroblasts in the postnatal RMS and OB. The primary cilium was observed in migrating neuroblasts in the postnatal RMS and OB in male and female mice and zebrafish, and a male rhesus monkey. Inhibition of intraflagellar transport molecules in migrating neuroblasts impaired their ciliogenesis and rostral migration toward the OB. Serial section transmission electron microscopy revealed that each migrating neuroblast possesses either a pair of centrioles or a basal body with an immature or mature primary cilium. Using immunohistochemistry, live imaging, and serial block-face scanning electron microscopy, we demonstrate that the localization and orientation of the primary cilium are altered depending on the mitotic state, saltatory migration, and deceleration of neuroblasts. Together, our results highlight a close mutual relationship between spatiotemporal regulation of the primary cilium and efficient chain migration of neuroblasts in the postnatal brain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Immature neurons (neuroblasts) generated in the postnatal brain have a mitotic potential and migrate in chain-like cell aggregates toward the olfactory bulb. Here we report that migrating neuroblasts possess a tiny cellular protrusion called a primary cilium. Immunohistochemical studies with zebrafish, mouse, and monkey brains suggest that the presence of the primary cilium in migrating neuroblasts is evolutionarily conserved. Ciliogenesis in migrating neuroblasts in the rostral migratory stream is suppressed during mitosis and promoted after cell cycle exit. Moreover, live imaging and 3D electron microscopy revealed that ciliary localization and orientation change during saltatory movement of neuroblasts. Our results reveal highly organized dynamics in maturation and positioning of the primary cilium during neuroblast migration that underlie saltatory movement of postnatal-born neuroblasts.

Detachment of Chain-Forming Neuroblasts by Fyn-Mediated Control of cell-cell Adhesion in the Postnatal Brain.

In the rodent olfactory system, neuroblasts produced in the ventricular-subventricular zone of the postnatal brain migrate tangentially in chain-like cell aggregates toward the olfactory bulb (OB) through the rostral migratory stream (RMS). After reaching the OB, the chains are dissociated and the neuroblasts migrate individually and radially toward their final destination. The cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling cell-cell adhesion during this detachment remain unclear. Here we report that Fyn, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, regulates the detachment of neuroblasts from chains in the male and female mouse OB. By performing chemical screening and in vivo loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments, we found that Fyn promotes somal disengagement from the chains and is involved in neuronal migration from the RMS into the granule cell layer of the OB. Fyn knockdown or Dab1 (disabled-1) deficiency caused p120-catenin to accumulate and adherens junction-like structures to be sustained at the contact sites between neuroblasts. Moreover, a Fyn and N-cadherin double-knockdown experiment indicated that Fyn regulates the N-cadherin-mediated cell adhesion between neuroblasts. These results suggest that the Fyn-mediated control of cell-cell adhesion is critical for the detachment of chain-forming neuroblasts in the postnatal OB.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the postnatal brain, newly born neurons (neuroblasts) migrate in chain-like cell aggregates toward their destination, where they are dissociated into individual cells and mature. The cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling the detachment of neuroblasts from chains are not understood. Here we show that Fyn, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, promotes the somal detachment of neuroblasts from chains, and that this regulation is critical for the efficient migration of neuroblasts to their destination. We further show that Fyn and Dab1 (disabled-1) decrease the cell-cell adhesion between chain-forming neuroblasts, which involves adherens junction-like structures. Our results suggest that Fyn-mediated regulation of the cell-cell adhesion of neuroblasts is critical for their detachment from chains in the postnatal brain.

Adult neurogenesis and its role in brain injury and psychiatric diseases.

In the adult mammalian brain, neural stem cells (NSCs) reside in two neurogenic regions, the walls of the lateral ventricles, and the subgranular zone of the hippocampus, which generate new neurons for the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus, respectively. These adult NSCs retain their self-renewal ability and capacity to differentiate into neurons and glia as demonstrated by in vitro studies. However, their contribution to tissue repair in disease and injury is limited, lending credence to the claim by prominent neuropathologist Ramón y Cajal that 'once development was ended, the founts of growth and regeneration of the axons and dendrites dried up irrevocably'. However, recent progress toward understanding the fundamental biology of adult NSCs and their role in pathological conditions has provided new insight into the potential therapeutic utility of endogenous NSCs. In this short review, we highlight two topics: the altered behavior of NSCs after brain damage and the dysfunction of NSCs and oligodendrocyte precursor cells, another type of undifferentiated cell in the adult brain, in mood affective disorders.

Mechanisms of neuronal migration in the adult brain.

Adult neurogenesis was first observed nearly 60 years ago, and it has since grown into an important neurochemistry research field. Much recent research has focused on the treatment of brain diseases through neuronal regeneration with endogenously generated neurons. In the adult brain, immature neurons called neuroblasts are continuously generated in the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ). These neuroblasts migrate rapidly through the rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb, where they mature and are integrated into the neuronal circuitry. After brain insult, some of the neuroblasts in the V-SVZ migrate toward the lesion to repopulate the injured tissue. This notable migratory capacity of V-SVZ-derived neuroblasts is important for efficiently regenerating neurons in remote areas of the brain. As these neurons migrate for long distances through adult brain tissue, they are supported by various guidance cues and structures that act as scaffolds. Some of these mechanisms are unique to neuroblast migration in the adult brain, and are not involved in migration in the developing brain. Here, we review the latest findings on the mechanisms of neuroblast migration in the adult brain under physiological and pathological conditions, and discuss various issues that still need to be resolved. This article is part of the mini review series "60th Anniversary of the Japanese Society for Neurochemistry".

Roles of Wnt Signaling in the Neurogenic Niche of the Adult Mouse Ventricular-Subventricular Zone.

In many animal species, the production of new neurons (neurogenesis) occurs throughout life, in a specialized germinal region called the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ). In this region, neural stem cells undergo self-renewal and generate neural progenitor cells and new neurons. In the olfactory system, the new neurons migrate rostrally toward the olfactory bulb, where they differentiate into mature interneurons. V-SVZ-derived new neurons can also migrate toward sites of brain injury, where they contribute to neural regeneration. Recent studies indicate that two major branches of the Wnt signaling pathway, the Wnt/ß-catenin and Wnt/planar cell polarity pathways, play essential roles in various facets of adult neurogenesis. Here, we review the Wnt signaling-mediated regulation of adult neurogenesis in the V-SVZ under physiological and pathological conditions.

Subchronic inhalation exposure to 2-ethyl-1-hexanol impairs the mouse olfactory bulb via injury and subsequent repair of the nasal olfactory epithelium.

The olfactory system can be a toxicological target of volatile organic compounds present in indoor air. Recently, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (2E1H) emitted from adhesives and carpeting materials has been postulated to cause "sick building syndrome." Patients' symptoms are associated with an increased sense of smell. This investigation aimed to characterize the histopathological changes of the olfactory epithelium (OE) of the nasal cavity and the olfactory bulb (OB) in the brain, due to subchronic exposure to 2E1H. Male ICR mice were exposed to 0, 20, 60, or 150 ppm 2E1H for 8 h every day for 1 week, or 5 days per week for 1 or 3 months. After a 1-week exposure, the OE showed inflammation and degeneration, with a significant concentration-dependent reduction in the staining of olfactory receptor neurons and in the numbers of globose basal cells at ≥20 ppm. Regeneration occurred at 1 month along with an increase in the basal cells, but lymphocytic infiltration, expanded Bowman's glands, and a decrease in the olfactory receptor neurons were observed at 3 months. Intriguingly, the OB at 3 months showed a reduction in the diameters of the glomeruli and in the number of olfactory nerves and tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons, but an increased number of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1-positive microglia in glomeruli. Accordingly, 2E1H inhalation induced degeneration of the OE with the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level of 20 ppm. The altered number of functional cell components in the OB suggests that effects on olfactory sensation persist after subchronic exposure to 2E1H.

Rac1-mediated indentation of resting neurons promotes the chain migration of new neurons in the rostral migratory stream of post-natal mouse brain.

New neurons generated in the ventricular-subventricular zone in the post-natal brain travel toward the olfactory bulb by using a collective cell migration process called 'chain migration.' These new neurons show a saltatory movement of their soma, suggesting that each neuron cycles through periods of 'rest' during migration. Here, we investigated the role of the resting neurons in chain migration using post-natal mouse brain, and found that they undergo a dynamic morphological change, in which a deep indentation forms in the cell body. Inhibition of Rac1 activity resulted in less indentation of the new neurons in vivo. Live cell imaging using a Förster resonance energy transfer biosensor revealed that Rac1 was activated at the sites of contact between actively migrating and resting new neurons. On the cell surface of resting neurons, Rac1 activation coincided with the formation of the indentation. Furthermore, Rac1 knockdown prevented the indentation from forming and impaired migration along the resting neurons. These results suggest that Rac1 regulates a morphological change in the resting neurons, which allows them to serve as a migratory scaffold, and thereby non-cell-autonomously promotes chain migration.

Neuraminidase inhibition promotes the collective migration of neurons and recovery of brain function.

In the injured brain, new neurons produced from endogenous neural stem cells form chains and migrate to injured areas and contribute to the regeneration of lost neurons. However, this endogenous regenerative capacity of the brain has not yet been leveraged for the treatment of brain injury. Here, we show that in healthy brain chains of migrating new neurons maintain unexpectedly large non-adherent areas between neighboring cells, allowing for efficient migration. In instances of brain injury, neuraminidase reduces polysialic acid levels, which negatively regulates adhesion, leading to increased cell-cell adhesion and reduced migration efficiency. The administration of zanamivir, a neuraminidase inhibitor used for influenza treatment, promotes neuronal migration toward damaged regions, fosters neuronal regeneration, and facilitates functional recovery. Together, these findings shed light on a new mechanism governing efficient neuronal migration in the adult brain under physiological conditions, pinpoint the disruption of this mechanism during brain injury, and propose a promising therapeutic avenue for brain injury through drug repositioning.

Identification of the growth cone as a probe and driver of neuronal migration in the injured brain.

Axonal growth cones mediate axonal guidance and growth regulation. We show that migrating neurons in mice possess a growth cone at the tip of their leading process, similar to that of axons, in terms of the cytoskeletal dynamics and functional responsivity through protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type sigma (PTPσ). Migrating-neuron growth cones respond to chondroitin sulfate (CS) through PTPσ and collapse, which leads to inhibition of neuronal migration. In the presence of CS, the growth cones can revert to their extended morphology when their leading filopodia interact with heparan sulfate (HS), thus re-enabling neuronal migration. Implantation of an HS-containing biomaterial in the CS-rich injured cortex promotes the extension of the growth cone and improve the migration and regeneration of neurons, thereby enabling functional recovery. Thus, the growth cone of migrating neurons is responsive to extracellular environments and acts as a primary regulator of neuronal migration.

Purinergic signaling promotes proliferation of adult mouse subventricular zone cells.

In adult mammalian brains, neural stem cells (NSCs) exist in the subventricular zone (SVZ), where persistent neurogenesis continues throughout life. Those NSCs produce neuroblasts that migrate into the olfactory bulb via formation of transit-amplifying cells, which are committed precursor cells of the neuronal lineage. In this SVZ niche, cell-cell communications conducted by diffusible factors as well as physical cell-cell contacts are important for the regulation of the proliferation and fate determination of NSCs. Previous studies have suggested that extracellular purinergic signaling, which is mediated by purine compounds such as ATP, plays important roles in cell-cell communication in the CNS. Purinergic signaling also promotes the proliferation of adult NSCs in vitro. However, the in vivo roles of purinergic signaling in the neurogenic niche still remain unknown. In this study, ATP infusion into the lateral ventricle of the mouse brain resulted in an increase in the numbers of rapidly dividing cells and Mash1-positive transit-amplifying cells (Type C cells) in the SVZ. Mash1-positive cells express the P2Y1 purinergic signaling receptor and infusion of the P2Y1 receptor-specific antagonist MRS2179 decreased the number of rapidly dividing bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cells and Type C cells. Moreover, a 17% reduction of rapidly dividing BrdU-positive cells and a 19% reduction of Mash1-positive cells were observed in P2Y1 knock-out mice. Together, these results suggest that purinergic signaling promotes the proliferation of rapidly dividing cells and transit-amplifying cells, in the SVZ niche through the P2Y1 receptor.

Human dental pulp-derived stem cells protect against hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in neonatal mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) has high rates of neurological deficits and mortality. So far, no effective treatment for HI brain injury has been developed. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) for the treatment of neonatal HI brain injury. METHODS: Unilateral HI was induced in postnatal day 5 (P5) mice. Twenty-four hours later, SHED, human skin fibroblasts, or serum-free conditioned medium derived from these cells was injected into the injured brain. The effects of cell transplantation or conditioned medium injection on the animals' neurological and pathophysiological recovery were evaluated. RESULTS: Transplanted SHED, but not fibroblasts, significantly reduced the HI-induced brain-tissue loss and improved neurological function. SHED also improved the survival of the HI mice. The engrafted SHED rarely differentiated into neural lineages; however, their transplantation inhibited the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, increased the expression of anti-inflammatory ones, and significantly reduced apoptosis. Notably, the intracerebral administration of SHED-conditioned medium also significantly improved the neurological outcome, inhibited apoptosis, and reduced tissue loss. CONCLUSIONS: SHED transplantation into the HI-injured brain resulted in remarkable neurological and pathophysiological recovery. Our findings indicate that paracrine factors derived from SHED support a neuroprotective microenvironment in the HI brain. SHED graft and SHED-conditioned medium may provide a novel neuroprotective therapy for HI.

Proteomic analysis of Girdin-interacting proteins in migrating new neurons in the postnatal mouse brain.

Neural stem cells continuously generate new neurons in the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) of the postnatal and adult mammalian brain. New neurons born in the rodent V-SVZ migrate toward the olfactory bulb (OB), where they differentiate into interneurons. To reveal novel intracellular molecular mechanisms that control postnatal neuronal migration, we performed a global proteomic search for proteins interacting with Girdin, an essential protein for postnatal neuronal migration. Using GST pull-down and LC-MS/MS shotgun analysis, we identified cytoskeletal proteins, cytoskeleton-binding proteins, and signal-transduction proteins as possible participants in neuronal migration. Our results suggest that Girdin and Girdin-interacting proteins control neuronal migration by regulating actin and/or microtubule dynamics.

Planar polarity of multiciliated ependymal cells involves the anterior migration of basal bodies regulated by non-muscle myosin II.

Motile cilia generate constant fluid flow over epithelial tissue, and thereby influence diverse physiological processes. Such functions of ciliated cells depend on the planar polarity of the cilia and on their basal bodies being oriented in the downstream direction of fluid flow. Recently, another type of basal body planar polarity, characterized by the anterior localization of the basal bodies in individual cells, was reported in the multiciliated ependymal cells that line the surface of brain ventricles. However, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which this polarity is established. Here, we report in mice that basal bodies move in the apical cell membrane during differentiation to accumulate in the anterior region of ependymal cells. The planar cell polarity signaling pathway influences basal body orientation, but not their anterior migration, in the neonatal brain. Moreover, we show by pharmacological and genetic studies that non-muscle myosin II is a key regulator of this distribution of basal bodies. This study demonstrates that the orientation and distribution of basal bodies occur by distinct mechanisms.

Subventricular zone-derived oligodendrogenesis in injured neonatal white matter in mice enhanced by a nonerythropoietic erythropoietin derivative.

Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) frequently causes white-matter injury, leading to severe neurological deficits and mortality, and only limited therapeutic options exist. The white matter of animal models and human patients with HI-induced brain injury contains increased numbers of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). However, the origin and fates of these OPCs and their potential to repair injured white matter remain unclear. Here, using cell-type- and region-specific genetic labeling methods in a mouse HI model, we characterized the Olig2-expressing OPCs. We found that after HI, Olig2+ cells increased in the posterior part of the subventricular zone (pSVZ) and migrated into the injured white matter. However, their oligodendrocytic differentiation efficiency was severely compromised compared with the OPCs in normal tissue, indicating the need for an intervention to promote their differentiation. Erythropoietin (EPO) treatment is a promising candidate, but it has detrimental effects that preclude its clinical use for brain injury. We found that long-term postinjury treatment with a nonerythropoietic derivative of EPO, asialo-erythropoietin, promoted the maturation of pSVZ-derived OPCs and the recovery of neurological function, without affecting hematopoiesis. These results demonstrate the limitation and potential of endogenous OPCs in the pSVZ as a therapeutic target for treating neonatal white-matter injury.

Roles of planar cell polarity signaling in maturation of neuronal precursor cells in the postnatal mouse olfactory bulb.

Neuronal precursor cells generated by stem cells in the subventricular zone (SVZ) migrate and differentiate into mature interneurons in the olfactory bulb (OB). The mechanisms responsible for the dynamic morphological changes in cells during this process are largely unknown. Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling regulates various developmental events, including neuronal migration and neurite formation. Here, we studied the function of two components of the PCP pathway, Dishevelled2 and Van Gogh like-2, in the newborn neurons in the postnatal mouse OB. Electroporation- or lentivirus-mediated introduction of vectors carrying a knockdown or dominant-negative construct of these genes into the SVZ altered the distribution and dendrite formation of newborn neurons in the OB, suggesting that PCP signaling is involved in regulating the maturation of new neurons in the OB.

Planar polarity of ependymal cilia.

Ependymal cells, epithelial cells that line the cerebral ventricles of the adult brain in various animals, extend multiple motile cilia from their apical surface into the ventricles. These cilia move rapidly, beating in a direction determined by the ependymal planar cell polarity (PCP). Ciliary dysfunction interferes with cerebrospinal fluid circulation and alters neuronal migration. In this review, we summarize recent studies on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying two distinct types of ependymal PCP. Ciliary beating in the direction of fluid flow is established by a combination of hydrodynamic forces and intracellular planar polarity signaling. The ciliary basal bodies' anterior position on the apical surface of the cell is determined in the embryonic radial glial cells, inherited by ependymal cells, and established by non-muscle myosin II in early postnatal development.

PlexinD1 signaling controls domain-specific dendritic development in newborn neurons in the postnatal olfactory bulb.

Newborn neurons show immature bipolar morphology and continue to migrate toward their destinations. After the termination of migration, newborn neurons undergo spatially controlled dendrite formation and change into a complex morphology. The mechanisms of dendritic development of newborn neurons have not been fully understood. Here, we show that in the postnatal olfactory bulb (OB), the Sema3E-PlexinD1 signaling, which maintains bipolar morphology of newborn neurons, also regulates their dendritic development after the termination of migration in a dendritic domain-specific manner. Genetic ablation of Sema3E or PlexinD1 enhanced dendritic branching in the proximal domain of the apical dendrites of OB newborn granule cells, whereas PlexinD1 overexpression suppressed it in a Rho binding domain (RBD)-dependent manner. Furthermore, RhoJ, a small GTPase that directly binds to PlexinD1RBD in vascular endothelial cells, is expressed in migrating and differentiating newborn granule cells in the OB and is also involved in the suppression of proximal branching of their apical dendrites. These results suggest that the Sema3E-PlexinD1-RhoJ axis regulates domain-specific dendrite formation of newborn neurons in the postnatal OB.