Accuracy, Acceptability, and Burden of an Integrated Screening Approach to Facilitate the Delivery of Tailored Sexual Assault Prevention in the U.S. Air Force.

This paper examines accuracy, acceptability, and respondent burden of integrated screening to facilitate tailored sexual assault (SA) prevention program delivery in a basic military training (BMT) environment. Trainees (n = 5,951) received tailored prevention content based on self-reported sex, sexual orientation, prior SA victimization and perpetration, and past-month post-traumatic stress symptoms. Bivariate analyses examined trainee-reported screener accuracy, acceptability, and burden, including differences by tailoring-targeted subgroups (e.g. men/women). Overall accuracy and acceptability were high (>90%) despite significant subgroup variability. Screening time averaged 10.55 (SD = 1.95) minutes; individuals with prior SA took longer. Missingness increased linearly throughout the screener. Integrated screening is an accurate, acceptable way to deploy tailored SA prevention in BMT. Findings inform data-driven screening improvements and novel applications.

A National Cost Analysis of Community Interventions to Prevent Underage Drinking and Prescription Drug Misuse.

This prospective cost analysis addresses a gap in the prevention literature by providing estimates of the typical real-world costs to implement community interventions focused on preventing underage drinking and prescription drug misuse. The study uses cost data reported by more than 400 community subrecipients participating in a national cross-site evaluation of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Strategic Prevention Framework Partnerships for Success grant program during 2013-2017. Community subrecipient organizations completed an annual Web-based survey to report their intervention costs. The analysis compares the relative startup and annual ongoing implementation costs of different prevention strategies and services. Partnerships for Success communities implemented a wide variety of interventions. Annual ongoing implementation was typically more costly than intervention startup. Costs were generally similar for population-level interventions, such as information dissemination and environmental strategies, and individual-level interventions, such as prevention education and positive alternative activities. However, population-level interventions reached considerably more people and consequently had much lower costs per person. Personnel contributed the most to intervention costs, followed by intervention supplies and overhead. Startup costs for initial training and costs for incentives, ongoing training, and in-kind contributions (nonlabor) during ongoing implementation were not typically reported. This study informs prevention planning by providing detailed information about the costs of classes of interventions used in communities, outside of research settings.

Examining the Relationship between Social Connection and Opioid Misuse: A Systematic Review.

METHODS: We used a Boolean search strategy of PubMed, PsycINFO, and Embase to identify eligible publications from January 1990 to March 2020 and narrative analysis to synthesize the evidence. RESULTS: The database search identified 1267 independent citations; 29 publications met inclusion criteria. Nearly all the studies demonstrated high risk of bias, most often due to selection and confounding bias. Most of the studies in the review (k = 20, 69%) found at least one significant association between social connection and opioid outcomes. Although no two studies included the same measures of social connection or opioid misuse, and social connection was both positively and negatively associated with opioid misuse, results support that social connection is an important correlate of opioid misuse. CONCLUSIONS: This review highlights the importance of social connection as a correlate to opioid misuse. However, the extensive variability among research studies points to a need for standardization of measurement and larger studies with diverse populations to allow for consequential recommendations for prevention or treatment of opioid misuse. Evidence regarding the associations between social connection and opioid misuse or disorder is sparse. We provide suggestions for advancing this research, including clarification of the complex influences between social connections and opioid misuse.

A Latent Class Analysis of Prevention Approaches Used to Reduce Community-Level Prescription Drug Misuse in Adolescents and Young Adults.

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Strategic Prevention Framework Partnerships for Success (PFS) program supports community-based organizations (CBOs) across the United States in implementing evidence-based prevention interventions to reduce substance use in adolescents and young adults. Little attention has been paid to how CBOs combine interventions to create comprehensive community-specific prevention approaches, or whether different approaches achieve similar community-level effects on prescription drug misuse (PDM). We used PFS evaluation data to address these gaps. Over 200 CBOs reported their prevention intervention characteristics, including strategy type (e.g., prevention education, environmental strategies) and number of unique interventions. Evaluation staff coded whether each intervention was an evidence-based program, practice, or policy (EBPPP). Latent Class Analysis of seven characteristics (use of each of five strategy types, use of one or more EBPPP, and number of interventions implemented) identified six prevention approach profiles: High Implementation EBPPP, Media Campaigns, Environmental EBPPP, High Implementation Non-EBPPP, Prevention Education, and Other Information Dissemination. All approaches except Media Campaigns and Other Information Dissemination were associated with significant reductions in community-level PDM. These approaches may need to be paired with other, more direct, prevention activities to effectively reduce PDM at the community level. However, similar rates of change in PDM across all 6 prevention approaches suggests only weak evidence favoring use of the other four approaches. Community-based evaluations that account for variability in implemented prevention approaches may provide a more nuanced understanding of community-level effects. Additional work is needed to help CBOs identify the most appropriate approach to use based on their target communities' characteristics and resources.

An Ecological Momentary Assessment of Affect, Mental Health Symptoms, and Decisions to Drink Among First-Year College Women: A Pilot Study.

College women experience more consequences (e.g., blacking out, unprotected/unwanted sex) on days when they engage in their heaviest drinking. To inform prevention efforts, research is needed to understand decision-making processes that influence women's drinking behaviors at the event level. The present study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) methods to examine: (1) associations between positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) and decision-making processes on days leading up to, during, and following heavy drinking events; and (2) mental health symptoms as moderators of these associations. Female undergraduate drinkers (N = 57) completed a 14-day EMA protocol on their smartphones, which included three daily assessments of PA, NA, and willingness and intentions to drink. Trait anxiety and depressive symptoms were measured before the EMA protocol and assessed as moderators. Time-varying effect models were used to examine covariation among PA, NA, and willingness and intentions to drink on the days leading up to participants' heaviest drinking events, the day of the event itself, and the days following the event. Results revealed PA was positively associated with willingness to drink the 2 days before, the day of, and the day after the heaviest drinking event. Similar effects were observed for PA and intentions to drink. Trait anxiety moderated the association between PA and intentions to drink. Findings underscore that positive affect may influence drinking-related decision-making processes surrounding heavy drinking events, particularly in those college women low in anxiety. Results identify potential entry points for real-time intervention efforts targeting college women during times of elevated PA.

A Web-Based Intervention to Reduce Indoor Tanning Motivations in Adolescents: a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Youthful indoor tanning as few as ten sessions can increase the risk of melanoma by two to four times with each additional session adding another 2 % to the risk. Recent research estimates that indoor tanning can be linked to approximately 450,000 cases of skin cancer annually in the USA, Europe, and Australia. Despite these risks, indoor tanning remains popular with adolescents. This study tested the efficacy of a web-based skin cancer prevention intervention designed to reduce indoor tanning motivations in adolescent females. A nationally representative sample of 443 female teens was enrolled from an online panel into a two-arm, parallel group design, randomized controlled trial. Treatment participants received an appearance-focused intervention grounded in established health behavior change models. Controls viewed a teen alcohol prevention website. Outcome variables included willingness and intentions to indoor tan, willingness to sunless tan, and measures of indoor tanning attitudes and beliefs. The intervention decreased willingness and intentions to indoor tan and increased sunless tanning willingness relative to controls. We also examined indirect mechanisms of change through intervening variables (e.g., indoor tanning attitudes, norms, positive and negative expectancies) using the product of coefficient approach. The web-based intervention demonstrated efficacy in changing adolescent indoor tanning motivations and improving their orientation toward healthier alternatives. Results from the intervening variable analyses give guidance to future adolescent skin cancer prevention interventions.

An Examination of the Relationship Between Consequence-Specific Normative Belief Patterns and Alcohol-Related Consequences Among College Students.

BACKGROUND: Research has previously identified a high-risk subgroup of college students who experience high levels of multiple and repeated alcohol-related consequences (MRC group). The purpose of this study was to examine the association between consequence-specific normative influences and experiencing multiple and repeated drinking-related consequences using a person-centered approach. Normative subgroups were identified using latent profile analysis (LPA), which were then used to predict MRC group status at 6-month follow-up. METHODS: First-year college student drinkers (N = 2,024) at a large northeastern university completed online surveys during the fall and spring semesters of their freshman year. Retention was high with 92% of invited participants completing T2, of which the MRC group accounted for 27%. RESULTS: Three student profiles were identified from LPA on T1 data: Nonpermissive Parents (77%), Positive Peer and Parent Norms (21%), and Permissive Parents (3%). Logistic regression revealed that both the Positive Peer and Parent Norms and Permissive Parents profiles had significantly higher odds of MRC group membership at follow-up (1.81 and 2.78 times greater, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest value in prevention efforts that include normative beliefs about alcohol-related consequences. Further, parental norms in particular have the potential to enhance interventions, especially through direct communication of disapproval for experiencing consequences.

Theory-Driven Longitudinal Study Exploring Indoor Tanning Initiation in Teens Using a Person-Centered Approach.

BACKGROUND: Younger indoor tanning initiation leads to greater melanoma risk due to more frequent and persistent behavior. Despite this, there are no published studies exploring the predictors of indoor tanning initiation in teen populations. PURPOSE: This longitudinal study uses latent profile analysis to examine indoor tanning initiation in indoor tanning risk subgroups from a national sample of female adolescents. METHODS: Latent profile analysis used indoor tanning beliefs and perceptions to identify indoor tanning initiation risk subgroups. The teens in each subgroup were reassessed on indoor tanning initiation after a year. RESULTS: Three subgroups were identified: a low risk, anti-tanning subgroup (18.6 %) characterized by low scores on positive indoor tanning belief scales and high scores on beliefs about indoor tanning dangers; a moderate risk aware social tanner subgroup (47.2 %) characterized by high scores on positive indoor tanning belief scales but also high scores on beliefs about indoor tanning dangers; and a high risk risky relaxation tanner subgroup (34.2 %) characterized by high scores on positive indoor tanning belief scales and low scores on beliefs about indoor tanning dangers. Teens in the aware social tanner and risky relaxation tanner subgroups were significantly more likely to initiate indoor tanning in the following year. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the need to identify teens at risk for indoor tanning initiation and develop tailored interventions that will move them to the lowest risk subgroup. Subgroup correlates suggest parent and peer-based interventions may be successful.

Examination of a dual-process model predicting riding with drinking drivers.

BACKGROUND: Nearly 1 in 5 of the fatalities in alcohol-related crashes are passengers. Few studies have utilized theory to examine modifiable psychosocial predictors of individuals' tendencies to be a passenger in a vehicle operated by a driver who has consumed alcohol. This study used a prospective design to test a dual-process model featuring reasoned and reactive psychological influences and psychosocial constructs as predictors of riding with drinking drivers (RWDD) in a sample of individuals aged 18 to 21. METHODS: College students (N = 508) completed web-based questionnaires assessing RWDD, psychosocial constructs (attitudes, expectancies, and norms), and reasoned and reactive influences (intentions and willingness) at baseline (the middle of the spring semester) and again 1 and 6 months later. Regression was used to analyze reasoned and reactive influences as proximal predictors of RWDD at the 6-month follow-up. Subsequent analyses examined the relationship between the psychosocial constructs as distal predictors of RWDD and the mediation effects of reasoned and reactive influences. RESULTS: Both reasoned and reactive influences predicted RWDD, while only the reactive influence had a significant unique effect. Reactive influences significantly mediated the effects of peer norms, attitudes, and drinking influences on RWDD. Nearly all effects were constant across gender except parental norms (significant for females). CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight that the important precursors of RWDD were reactive influences, attitudes, and peer and parent norms. These findings suggest several intervention methods, specifically normative feedback interventions, parent-based interventions, and brief motivational interviewing, may be particularly beneficial in reducing RWDD.

Who Will Experience the Most Alcohol Problems in College? The Roles of Middle and High School Drinking Tendencies.

BACKGROUND: Previous work examining college drinking tendencies has identified a disproportionately small (20%), but uniquely high-risk group of students who experience nearly 50% of the reported alcohol-related consequences (i.e., the multiple repeated consequences, or MRC, group). With the goal of reducing drinking-related consequences later in college, this study sought to identify potential MRC group members in their first semester by examining: (i) early-risk subgroups based on analysis of early-risk screening constructs (e.g., age of drinking onset, middle school alcohol exposure, high school drinking, and consequences); and (ii) their association with MRC criteria early in the first semester of college. METHODS: A random sample of 2,021 first-year college student drinkers (56% female) completed a web-based drinking survey in their first semester on campus. RESULTS: Latent class analysis revealed 4 early-risk subgroups: (i) an early-onset risk group who endorsed early age of drinking onset and engaged in heavy middle and high school drinking (10%); (ii) a late-onset risk group who engaged in weekend drinking and drunkenness and experienced 6 or more unique consequences as seniors in high school (32%); (iii) an early-onset limited risk group who only endorsed early age of onset and middle school drinking (3%); and (iv) a minimal risk group who did not engage in any early-risk behaviors (55%). Members of both the early- and late-onset risk groups had significantly higher odds of MRC membership in their first semester of college (9.85 and 6.79 greater, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest age of onset, middle and high school drinking and drunkenness, and frequency of unique consequences could be particularly useful in brief screening tools. Further, findings support early screening and prevention efforts for MRC membership prior to college matriculation.

Optimizing timing and dosage: does parent type moderate the effects of variations of a parent-based intervention to reduce college student drinking?

Research on parent-based interventions (PBIs) to reduce college student drinking has explored the optimal timing of delivery and dosage. The present study extended this work by examining the effectiveness of three different PBI conditions on student drinking outcomes as a function of parenting types and students' pre-college drinking patterns. Four hypotheses were evaluated (early intervention, increased dosage, invariant, and treatment matching risk). A random sample of 1,900 college students and their parents was randomized to four conditions: (1) pre-college matriculation, (2) pre-college matriculation plus booster, (3) post-college matriculation, or (4) control, and was assessed at baseline (summer prior to college) and 5-month follow-up. Baseline parent type was assessed using latent profile analysis (positive, pro-alcohol, positive, anti-alcohol, negative mother, and negative father). Student drinking patterns were classified at baseline and follow-up and included: non-drinker, weekend light drinker, weekend heavy episodic drinker, and heavy drinker. Consistent with the treatment matching risk hypothesis, results indicated parent type moderated the effects of intervention condition such that receiving the intervention prior to college was associated with lower likelihood of being in a higher-risk drinking pattern at follow-up for students with positive, anti-alcohol, or negative father parent types. The findings are discussed with respect to optimal delivery and dosage of parent-based interventions for college student drinking.

Combining alcohol and energy drinks: An examination of psychosocial constructs and alcohol outcomes among college students using a longitudinal design.

Combining alcohol and energy drinks (e.g., Red Bull and vodka) is a significant problem on college campuses. To date, few studies have examined psychosocial constructs specific to alcohol-energy drink cocktail (AmED) consumption that could be amenable to change via prevention efforts targeting this population. The aim of the current study was to examine differences in AmED-specific attitudes, beliefs, normative perceptions among students who report AmED use compared to college student drinkers who consume alcohol only. In addition, these two groups were compared on their intentions to consume AmEDs, actual AmED use, and other drinking outcomes using a longitudinal design. Participants (N = 386, 59% female) completed a web-based survey in the spring of their first year of college and fall of their second year assessing alcohol-energy drink cocktail use, psychosocial decision-making constructs, heavy drinking, and alcohol-related consequences. Findings revealed that combiners of alcohol and energy drinks had more positive attitudes and beliefs about AmED use, higher perceived peer norms, and stronger intentions toward future use. Accordingly, at Time 2, this group reported significantly higher AmED use, along with high-risk drinking and related consequences. The findings reinforce that AmED use is associated with risky drinking practices, and suggest potential targets for change for future prevention efforts.

Alcohol's Role in Sexual Decision Making in First-Year College Women: An Event-Level Assessment.

Sexual decision making is often grounded in social scripts that can be detrimental to women's healthy relationship and sexual development during the transition to college. Little is known about the malleable decision-making processes and drinking behaviors that influence sexual behaviors from day-to-day. We examined whether women were more likely to engage in sexual behaviors on days they had higher intentions and willingness to engage in sex or drink alcohol. We also explored interactions between sex- and alcohol-related decision constructs. Eighty-two first-year college women completed 14-days of ecological momentary assessment, reporting on alcohol- and sex-related intentions and willingness (3x daily) and daily drinking and sexual behaviors. We found partial support for our hypotheses: intentions and willingness to have sex were positively associated with sex behaviors, but willingness to drink was negatively associated with sex behaviors. Heavy drinking was associated with sexual behavior, even when women indicated no prior willingness to engage in sexual behavior on those days. Findings highlight the need to address event-level variability in sexual decision making, with a particular focus on how alcohol impacts these processes. Further, the robust association between sexual intentions and behavior suggests intention setting may be a particularly useful sexual empowerment education tool.

Alcohol's Role in Campus Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior: A Systematic Review.

Between 50% and 70% of campus sexual assaults (SA) involve alcohol and campuses frequently promote bystander intervention strategies to prevent SA in student party contexts. This systematic review evaluates the measurement and outcomes of quantitative studies on how alcohol affects campus SA bystander outcomes. Using four search strategies and rigorous systematic review methods, we conducted a review of 36 studies. We included studies published after 2,000 conducted with college students in the United States, its territories, and Canada which contained information on alcohol use and SA bystander outcomes (behaviors and upstream proxies). Only a third of included studies measured bystander behavior directly, the majority measured upstream proxies (e.g., intentions, self-efficacy). Most studies considered the influence of victim intoxication on bystander outcomes. No studies assessed the pharmacological or physiological effects of alcohol on bystander outcomes. A single study examined hypothetical bystander responses when intoxicated, one-third examined bystander's typical alcohol use in relation to bystander outcomes. Many findings are contradictory, including fundamental details such as how often students encounter SA involving alcohol or whether bystanders' alcohol use predicts outcomes. Findings suggest that students are less likely help intoxicated victims compared to sober victims, but there are clear moderating factors. Perpetrator intoxication was not studied in relation to bystander behavior and did not influence any upstream proxies. Evaluations of interventions on alcohol and bystander topics are promising yet more research is required. This review illuminates key gaps in the literature, including the need for validated measures and scenarios, event-level studies, and alcohol administration trials.

Strategies and Interventions Used to Prevent Violence Against Sex Workers in the United States: A Scoping Review Using the Social-Ecological Model.

Structural factors in the United States, such as criminalization, contribute to disproportionate rates of violence against sex workers and subsequent risk of adverse health outcomes. There is a clear need for systemic interventions and risk reduction strategies to reduce violence in this population. To inform next steps in prevention, this scoping review provides an overview of the literature on violence prevention efforts targeting sex workers in the United States, mapped out according to the social-ecological model (SEM). A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed literature across five databases with no limit on publication date yielded 2,372 documents. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they focused on the U.S. population of sex workers and had a clearly defined aim or purpose of exploring, describing, or evaluating sex work violence prevention interventions or risk reduction strategies. Twelve studies met all eligibility criteria and were selected. Only two of the studies evaluated sexual violence prevention interventions, while the remaining 10 explored strategies sex workers use to minimize the risk of violence. Most research focused on female sex workers, violence from paying clients, and prevention at the individual level of the SEM. Our findings suggest a need for additional violence prevention interventions tailored for diverse groups of sex workers and cognizant of the overlapping forms of violence they face. This scoping review contributes to the limited body of research on the prevention of violence against sex workers in the United States by providing future directions for research and program development that span across the SEM.

The daily association between affect and alcohol use: A meta-analysis of individual participant data.

Influential psychological theories hypothesize that people consume alcohol in response to the experience of both negative and positive emotions. Despite two decades of daily diary and ecological momentary assessment research, it remains unclear whether people consume more alcohol on days they experience higher negative and positive affect in everyday life. In this preregistered meta-analysis, we synthesized the evidence for these daily associations between affect and alcohol use. We included individual participant data from 69 studies (N = 12,394), which used daily and momentary surveys to assess affect and the number of alcoholic drinks consumed. Results indicate that people are not more likely to drink on days they experience high negative affect, but are more likely to drink and drink heavily on days high in positive affect. People self-reporting a motivational tendency to drink-to-cope and drink-to-enhance consumed more alcohol, but not on days they experienced higher negative and positive affect. Results were robust across different operationalizations of affect, study designs, study populations, and individual characteristics. These findings challenge the long-held belief that people drink more alcohol following increases in negative affect. Integrating these findings under different theoretical models and limitations of this field of research, we collectively propose an agenda for future research to explore open questions surrounding affect and alcohol use.

Examining the Use of Mobile Technology to Deliver Tailored Sexual Assault Prevention in a Classroom Environment in the Military: Development and Usability Study.

BACKGROUND: Advances in mobile technology over the last 10 years have expanded its use in scientific research. However, there are challenges in creating a reliable system for intervention content delivery and data collection in an environment with limited internet connectivity and limited staffing capacity. The Sexual Communication and Consent (SCC) study used tablets to provide individualized Sexual Assault Prevention and Response training in a classroom environment that was both technologically and support staff limited. OBJECTIVE: We developed the SCC Basic Military Training app and a separate Sexual Assault Response Coordinator app to support individualized training within the new SCC program. This paper presents the functionality, protocols, challenges, and feasibility of deploying mobile technology in an educational environment in the military with limited resources. METHODS: We developed both mobile apps targeting the Apple iOS ecosystem. The Basic Military Training app provided a screening instrument that routed the trainee into 1 of 5 specific intervention programs. Over 2 days of basic military training set 2 weeks apart, trainees received a combined 6 hours of program-specific tablet training, combined with universal, interactive classroom training, led by qualified instructors. The Sexual Assault Response Coordinator app, used to deliver supplemental content to a subgroup of trainees, was made available for voluntary and private use at the Sexual Assault Response Coordinator's office on base. All anonymous data were manually transferred onto laptops, where the data were aggregated into files and securely transferred to the project staff for analysis. The study was conducted at the Lackland Air Force Base, Joint Base San Antonio, with 9196 trainees providing the data. RESULTS: A total of 7742 trainees completed both the sessions of the SCC program and a series of evaluative assessments. Some trainees did not receive day 2 training, and only received day 1 training because the COVID-19 pandemic shortened the study period. Of the 190 SCC classes taught, only one class was unable to complete tablet training because of Apple licensing-related technology failure. The 360 study tablets were distributed across 3 classrooms (120 per classroom) and were handled at least 16,938 times with no reports of breakage or requiring replacement. Wi-Fi access limitations exacerbated the complexity of Apple licensing revalidation and the secure transfer of data from the classroom to project personnel. The instructor staff's limited technical knowledge to perform certain technical tasks was challenging. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrated the feasibility of deploying a mobile app for tablet-based training in a military educational environment. Although successful, the study was not without technical challenges. This paper gives examples of technical lessons learned and recommendations for conducting the study differently, with the aim that the knowledge gained may be helpful to other researchers encountering similar requirements.

An Ecological Momentary Assessment of College Women's Decisions to Use Protective Behavioral Strategies.

Protective behavioral strategies (PBS) have been associated with reduced risk for sexual assault victimization in college women. Sexual assault risk reduction programs have had limited success increasing PBS use, particularly among heavy drinkers, suggesting a need for additional research on the malleable predictors of PBS use. Whereas longitudinal studies show women's decisions to use PBS can be both planned and reactive, little is known about the decision-making processes that affect PBS use on drinking days, when sexual assault risk may be elevated. The current study used ecological momentary assessment to examine variability in the associations between decision-making and PBS use within and across drinking days in first-semester college women. Participants (56 female drinkers) completed a 14-day protocol with three daily measures of intentions and willingness to use PBS, and once-daily diaries of PBS use. Multilevel models examined between-day and within-day effects of intentions and willingness to use PBS with regards to sexual assault PBS (e.g., communicating sexual boundaries) and drinking PBS (e.g., limiting alcohol consumption), respectively. On days when sexual assault PBS willingness increased throughout the day, women tended to use more sexual assault PBS. This association was strongest among women who were typically less willing to use these PBS. Among women who were the least willing to use drinking PBS, their drinking PBS use decreased on days when they reported increased willingness to use them. Decisions to use sexual assault and drinking PBS on drinking days were qualified by women's typical levels of willingness to use the different PBS. This suggests the need for a multi-faceted intervention strategy that targets both typical and event-level risk. Individual-level alcohol and sexual assault risk reduction approaches could be enhanced with event-level PBS messaging and evaluation.

Spending Time in Nature Serves as a Protective Factor against Problematic Alcohol Use: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach.

Alcohol use in the U.S. continues to be a prevalent behavior with the potential for far-reaching personal and public health consequences. Risk factors for problematic drinking include negative affect and impulsive decision-making. Research suggests exposure to nature reduces negative affect, increases positive affect, and reduces impulsive choice. The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationships between exposure to nature (actively going out to nature and the level of greenness around the participant's daily life), affect, impulsive decision-making, and alcohol use, using structural equation modeling. Cross-sectional data (N = 340) collected online on Amazon MTurk were used to test the hypothesized relationships separately for alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. Actively spending time in nature was associated with lower negative affect and higher positive affect, while passive exposure to nature was only associated with higher positive affect. In turn, negative affect was positively related to both alcohol measures, while positive affect was related to increased alcohol consumption, but not alcohol-related problems. Impulsive decision-making was not related to nature or alcohol measures. Findings suggest that intentionally spending time in nature may protect against problematic alcohol use by reducing negative affect. These results warrant further research on nature as an adjunct treatment for reducing alcohol and substance-related harms and carry implications for public education and increasing accessibility to natural spaces.

What Predicts Willingness to Experience Negative Consequences in College Student Drinkers?

OBJECTIVE: Research has shown that students who were more willing to experience consequences reported higher rates of alcohol consumption and negative consequences. The present study used a longitudinal design to examine intra- and interpersonal consequence-specific predictors of willingness to experience negative consequences. METHOD: Students (N = 2,024) were assessed in the fall (Time [T] 1) and spring (T2) semesters of their first year in college. Intrapersonal constructs (i.e., expectancies, subjective evaluations, self-efficacy), interpersonal constructs (i.e., peer descriptive, injunctive norms), and personality constructs (i.e., self-regulation, impulsivity, sensation seeking) were assessed at T1 and willingness to experience negative alcohol-related consequences was assessed 6 months later. A structural path model examined the relationship between T1 predictors and T2 willingness. T1 drinking and sex were included as covariates. RESULTS: These results demonstrated significant positive relationships between T1 participants' subjective evaluations of consequences, expectancies of experiencing consequences, and T2 willingness to experience negative consequences. Further, impulsivity, sensation seeking, and T1 drinking showed significant, positive associations with willingness, whereas higher self-regulation was significantly associated with lower willingness. Men were significantly more willing to experience negative consequences than women. No significant associations were observed between normative perceptions and willingness. CONCLUSIONS: Intrapersonal and personality constructs, as well as previous drinking, were significantly associated with willingness to experience consequences whereas interpersonal constructs were not. Men were significantly more willing to experience negative consequences. College student interventions may benefit from focusing on significant constructs identified in the current study (e.g., enhancing self-regulation) and focusing on students with higher willingness to experience negative consequences.