Elongasome core proteins and class A PBP1a display zonal, processive movement at the midcell of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Ovoid-shaped bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), have two spatially separated peptidoglycan (PG) synthase nanomachines that locate zonally to the midcell of dividing cells. The septal PG synthase bPBP2x:FtsW closes the septum of dividing pneumococcal cells, whereas the elongasome located on the outer edge of the septal annulus synthesizes peripheral PG outward. We showed previously by sm-TIRFm that the septal PG synthase moves circumferentially at midcell, driven by PG synthesis and not by FtsZ treadmilling. The pneumococcal elongasome consists of the PG synthase bPBP2b:RodA, regulators MreC, MreD, and RodZ, but not MreB, and genetically associated proteins Class A aPBP1a and muramidase MpgA. Given its zonal location separate from FtsZ, it was of considerable interest to determine the dynamics of proteins in the pneumococcal elongasome. We found that bPBP2b, RodA, and MreC move circumferentially with the same velocities and durations at midcell, driven by PG synthesis. However, outside of the midcell zone, the majority of these elongasome proteins move diffusively over the entire surface of cells. Depletion of MreC resulted in loss of circumferential movement of bPBP2b, and bPBP2b and RodA require each other for localization and circumferential movement. Notably, a fraction of aPBP1a molecules also moved circumferentially at midcell with velocities similar to those of components of the core elongasome, but for shorter durations. Other aPBP1a molecules were static at midcell or diffusing over cell bodies. Last, MpgA displayed nonprocessive, subdiffusive motion that was largely confined to the midcell region and less frequently detected over the cell body.

A MAP for bundling microtubules.

Microtubules assemble into arrays of bundled filaments that are critical for multiple steps in cell division, including anaphase and cytokinesis. Recent structural and functional studies, including two papers in this issue of Cell (Bieling et al., 2010; Subramanian et al., 2010), demonstrate how the MAP65 protein PRC1 crosslinks microtubules and cooperates with kinesin motors to control the dynamics and size of bundled regions.

WAVE-DAMPENED2-LIKE4 modulates the hyper-elongation of light-grown hypocotyl cells.

Light, temperature, water, and nutrient availability influence how plants grow to maximize access to resources. Axial growth, the linear extension of tissues by coordinated axial cell expansion, plays a central role in these adaptive morphological responses. Using Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) hypocotyl cells to explore axial growth control mechanisms, we investigated WAVE-DAMPENED2-LIKE4 (WDL4), an auxin-induced, microtubule-associated protein and member of the larger WDL gene family shown to modulate hypocotyl growth under changing environmental conditions. Loss-of-function wdl4 seedlings exhibited a hyper-elongation phenotype under light conditions, continuing to elongate when wild-type Col-0 hypocotyls arrested and reaching 150% to 200% of wild-type length before shoot emergence. wdl4 seedling hypocotyls showed dramatic hyper-elongation (500%) in response to temperature elevation, indicating an important role in morphological adaptation to environmental cues. WDL4 was associated with microtubules under both light and dark growth conditions, and no evidence was found for altered microtubule array patterning in loss-of-function wdl4 mutants under various conditions. Examination of hormone responses showed altered sensitivity to ethylene and evidence for changes in the spatial distribution of an auxin-dependent transcriptional reporter. Our data provide evidence that WDL4 regulates hypocotyl cell elongation without substantial changes to microtubule array patterning, suggesting an unconventional role in axial growth control.

Organization of peptidoglycan synthesis in nodes and separate rings at different stages of cell division of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Bacterial peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis requires strict spatiotemporal organization to reproduce specific cell shapes. In ovoid-shaped Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn), septal and peripheral (elongation) PG synthesis occur simultaneously at midcell. To uncover the organization of proteins and activities that carry out these two modes of PG synthesis, we examined Spn cells vertically oriented onto their poles to image the division plane at the high lateral resolution of 3D-SIM (structured-illumination microscopy). Labeling with fluorescent D-amino acids (FDAA) showed that areas of new transpeptidase (TP) activity catalyzed by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) separate into a pair of concentric rings early in division, representing peripheral PG (pPG) synthesis (outer ring) and the leading-edge (inner ring) of septal PG (sPG) synthesis. Fluorescently tagged PBP2x or FtsZ locate primarily to the inner FDAA-marked ring, whereas PBP2b and FtsX remain in the outer ring, suggesting roles in sPG or pPG synthesis, respectively. Pulses of FDAA labeling revealed an arrangement of separate regularly spaced "nodes" of TP activity around the division site of predivisional cells. Tagged PBP2x, PBP2b, and FtsX proteins also exhibited nodal patterns with spacing comparable to that of FDAA labeling. Together, these results reveal new aspects of spatially ordered PG synthesis in ovococcal bacteria during cell division.

Movement dynamics of divisome proteins and PBP2x:FtsW in cells of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Bacterial cell division and peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis are orchestrated by the coordinated dynamic movement of essential protein complexes. Recent studies show that bidirectional treadmilling of FtsZ filaments/bundles is tightly coupled to and limiting for both septal PG synthesis and septum closure in some bacteria, but not in others. Here we report the dynamics of FtsZ movement leading to septal and equatorial ring formation in the ovoid-shaped pathogen, Streptococcus pneumoniae Conventional and single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFm) showed that nascent rings of FtsZ and its anchoring and stabilizing proteins FtsA and EzrA move out from mature septal rings coincident with MapZ rings early in cell division. This mode of continuous nascent ring movement contrasts with a failsafe streaming mechanism of FtsZ/FtsA/EzrA observed in a ΔmapZ mutant and another Streptococcus species. This analysis also provides several parameters of FtsZ treadmilling in nascent and mature rings, including treadmilling velocity in wild-type cells and ftsZ(GTPase) mutants, lifetimes of FtsZ subunits in filaments and of entire FtsZ filaments/bundles, and the processivity length of treadmilling of FtsZ filament/bundles. In addition, we delineated the motion of the septal PBP2x transpeptidase and its FtsW glycosyl transferase-binding partner relative to FtsZ treadmilling in S. pneumoniae cells. Five lines of evidence support the conclusion that movement of the bPBP2x:FtsW complex in septa depends on PG synthesis and not on FtsZ treadmilling. Together, these results support a model in which FtsZ dynamics and associations organize and distribute septal PG synthesis, but do not control its rate in S. pneumoniae.

Exogenous Auxin Induces Transverse Microtubule Arrays Through TRANSPORT INHIBITOR RESPONSE1/AUXIN SIGNALING F-BOX Receptors.

Auxin plays a central role in controlling plant cell growth and morphogenesis. Application of auxin to light-grown seedlings elicits both axial growth and transverse patterning of the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton in hypocotyl cells. Microtubules respond to exogenous auxin within 5 min, although repatterning of the array does not initiate until 30 min after application and is complete by 2 h. To examine the requirements for auxin-induced microtubule array patterning, we used an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) double auxin f-box (afb) receptor mutant, afb4-8 afb5-5, that responds to conventional auxin (indole-3-acetic acid) but has a strongly diminished response to the auxin analog, picloram. We show that 5 µm picloram induces immediate changes to microtubule density and later transverse microtubule patterning in wild-type plants, but does not cause microtubule array reorganization in the afb4-8 afb5-5 mutant. Additionally, a dominant mutant (axr2-1) for the auxin coreceptor AUXIN RESPONSIVE2 (AXR2) was strongly suppressed for auxin-induced microtubule array reorganization, providing additional evidence that auxin functions through a transcriptional pathway for transverse patterning. We observed that brassinosteroid application mimicked the auxin response, showing both early and late microtubule array effects, and induced transverse patterning in the axr2-1 mutant. Application of auxin to the brassinosteroid synthesis mutant, diminuto1, induced transverse array patterning but did not produce significant axial growth. Thus, exogenous auxin induces transverse microtubule patterning through the TRANSPORT INHIBITOR 1/AUXIN F-BOX (TIR1/AFB) transcriptional pathway and can act independently of brassinosteroids.

A Cycloheximide-Sensitive Step in Transverse Microtubule Array Patterning.

The growth properties of individual cells within a tissue determine plant morphology, and the organization of the cytoskeleton, particularly the microtubule arrays, determines cellular growth properties. We investigated the mechanisms governing the formation of transverse microtubule array patterns in axially growing Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) epidermal hypocotyl cells. Using quantitative imaging approaches, we mapped the transition of the cortical microtubule arrays into a transverse coaligned pattern after induction with auxin and gibberellic acid. Hormone induction led to an early loss of microtubule plus end density and a rotation toward oblique patterns. Beginning 30 min after induction, transverse microtubules appeared at the cell's midzone concurrently with the loss of longitudinal polymers, eventually progressing apically and basally to remodel the array pattern. Based on the timing and known hormone-signaling pathways, we tested the hypothesis that the later events require de novo gene expression and, thus, constitute a level of genetic control over transverse patterning. We found that the presence of the translation inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) resulted in a selective and reversible loss of transverse patterns that were replaced with radial-like pinwheel arrays exhibiting a split bipolar architecture centered at the cell's midzone. Experiments using hormone induction and CHX revealed that pinwheel arrays occur when transverse microtubules increase at the midzone but longitudinal microtubules in the split bipolar architecture are not suppressed. We propose that a key regulatory mechanism for creating the transverse microtubule coalignment in axially growing hypocotyls involves the expression of a CHX-sensitive factor that acts to suppress the nucleation of the longitudinally oriented polymers.

Microtubule Array Patterns Have a Common Underlying Architecture in Hypocotyl Cells.

Microtubules at the plant cell cortex influence cell shape by patterning the deposition of cell wall materials. The elongated cells of the hypocotyl create a variety of microtubule array patterns with differing degrees of polymer coalignment and orientation to the cell's growth axis. To gain insight into the mechanisms driving array organization, we investigated the underlying microtubule array architecture in light-grown epidermal cells with explicit reference to array pattern. We discovered that all nontransverse patterns share a common underlying array architecture, having a core unimodal peak of coaligned microtubules in a split bipolarized arrangement. The growing microtubule plus ends extend toward the cell's apex and base with a region of antiparallel microtubule overlap at the cell's midzone. This core coalignment continuously shifts between ±30° from the cell's longitudinal growth axis, forming a continuum of longitudinal and oblique arrays. Transverse arrays exhibit the same unimodal core coalignment but form local domains of microtubules polymerizing in the same direction rather than a split bipolarized architecture. Quantitative imaging experiments and analysis of katanin mutants showed that the longitudinal arrays are created from microtubules originating on the outer periclinal cell face, pointing to a cell-directed, rather than self-organizing, mechanism for specifying the major array pattern classes in the hypocotyl cell.

CLASP Facilitates Transitions between Cortical Microtubule Array Patterns.

Acentrosomal plant microtubule arrays form patterns at the cell cortex that influence cellular morphogenesis by templating the deposition of cell wall materials, but the molecular basis by which the microtubules form the cortical array patterns remains largely unknown. Loss of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) microtubule-associated protein, CYTOPLASMIC LINKER ASSOCIATED PROTEIN (AtCLASP), results in cellular growth anisotropy defects in hypocotyl cells. We examined the microtubule array patterning in atclasp-1 null mutants and discovered a significant defect in the timing of transitions between array patterns but no substantive defect in the array patterns per se. Detailed analysis and computational modeling of the microtubule dynamics in two atclasp-1 fluorescent tubulin marker lines revealed marker-dependent effects on depolymerization and catastrophe frequency predicted to alter the steady-state microtubule population. Quantitative in vivo analysis of the underlying microtubule array architecture showed that AtCLASP is required to maintain the number of growing microtubule plus ends during transitions between array patterns. We propose that AtCLASP plays a critical role in cellular morphogenesis through actions on new microtubules that facilitate array transitions.

Toll-like receptors 2 and 6 mediate apoptosis and inflammation in ischemic skeletal myotubes.

Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is associated with skeletal muscle damage. However, the pathophysiology of the muscle damage is poorly understood. Toll-like receptors (TLR) have been attributed to play a role in ischemia-induced tissue damage but their role in skeletal muscle damage in CLI is unknown. TLR2 and TLR6 expression was found to be upregulated in skeletal muscle of patients with CLI. In vitro, ischemia led to upregulation of TLR2 and TLR6 by myotubes, and activation of the downstream TLR signaling pathway. Ischemia-induced activation of the TLR signaling pathway led to secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 and muscle apoptosis, which were abrogated by neutralising TLR2 and TLR6 antibodies. Our study demonstrates that TLR2 and TLR6 are upregulated in ischemic muscle and play a role in ischemia-induced muscle damage. Thus, manipulating the TLR pathway locally may be of potential therapeutic benefit.

Progressive transverse microtubule array organization in hormone-induced Arabidopsis hypocotyl cells.

The acentriolar cortical microtubule arrays in dark-grown hypocotyl cells organize into a transverse coaligned pattern that is critical for axial plant growth. In light-grown Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings, the cortical array on the outer (periclinal) cell face creates a variety of array patterns with a significant bias (>3:1) for microtubules polymerizing edge-ward and into the side (anticlinal) faces of the cell. To study the mechanisms required for creating the transverse coalignment, we developed a dual-hormone protocol that synchronously induces ∼80% of the light-grown hypocotyl cells to form transverse arrays over a 2-h period. Repatterning occurred in two phases, beginning with an initial 30 to 40% decrease in polymerizing plus ends prior to visible changes in the array pattern. Transverse organization initiated at the cell's midzone by 45 min after induction and progressed bidirectionally toward the apical and basal ends of the cell. Reorganization corrected the edge-ward bias in polymerization and proceeded without transiting through an obligate intermediate pattern. Quantitative comparisons of uninduced and induced microtubule arrays showed a limited deconstruction of the initial periclinal array followed by a progressive array reorganization to transverse coordinated between the anticlinal and periclinal cell faces.

Pbp2x localizes separately from Pbp2b and other peptidoglycan synthesis proteins during later stages of cell division of Streptococcus pneumoniae†D39.

The relative localization patterns of class B penicillin-binding proteins Pbp2x and Pbp2b were used as positional indicators of septal and peripheral (side-wall-like) peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis, respectively, in the mid-cell regions of Streptococcus pneumoniae cells at different stages of division. We confirm that Pbp2x and Pbp2b are essential in the strain D39 genetic background, which differs from that of laboratory strains. We show that Pbp2b, like Pbp2x and class A Pbp1a, follows a different localization pattern than FtsZ and remains at division septa after FtsZ reappears at the equators of daughter cells. Pulse-experiments with fluorescent D-amino acids (FDAAs) were performed in wild-type cells and in cells in which Pbp2x activity was preferentially inhibited by methicillin or Pbp2x amount was depleted. These experiments show that Pbp2x activity separates from that of other PBPs to the centres of constricting septa in mid-to-late divisional cells resolved by high-resolution 3D-SIM microscopy. Dual-protein and protein-fluorescent vancomycin 2D and 3D-SIM immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM) of cells at different division stages corroborate that Pbp2x separates to the centres of septa surrounded by an adjacent constricting ring containing Pbp2b, Pbp1a and regulators, StkP and MreC. The separate localization of Pbp2x suggests distinctive roles in completing septal PG synthesis and remodelling.

The cell biology of peritrichous flagella in Bacillus subtilis.

Bacterial flagella are highly conserved molecular machines that have been extensively studied for assembly, function and gene regulation. Less studied is how and why bacteria differ based on the number and arrangement of the flagella they synthesize. Here we explore the cell biology of peritrichous flagella in the model bacterium Bacillus subtilis by fluorescently labelling flagellar basal bodies, hooks and filaments. We find that the average B. subtilis cell assembles approximately 26 flagellar basal bodies and we show that basal body number is controlled by SwrA. Basal bodies are assembled rapidly (< 5 min) but the assembly of flagella capable of supporting motility is rate limited by filament polymerization (> 40 min). We find that basal bodies are not positioned randomly on the cell surface. Rather, basal bodies occupy a grid-like pattern organized symmetrically around the midcell and that flagella are discouraged at the poles. Basal body position is genetically determined by FlhF and FlhG homologues to control spatial patterning differently from what is seen in bacteria with polar flagella. Finally, spatial control of flagella in B. subtilis seems more relevant to the inheritance of flagella and motility of individual cells than the motile behaviour of populations.

Requirement of essential Pbp2x and GpsB for septal ring closure in Streptococcus pneumoniae D39.

Bacterial cell shapes are manifestations of programs carried out by multi-protein machines that synthesize and remodel the resilient peptidoglycan (PG) mesh and other polymers surrounding cells. GpsB protein is conserved in low-GC Gram-positive bacteria and is not essential in rod-shaped Bacillus subtilis, where it plays a role in shuttling penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) between septal and side-wall sites of PG synthesis. In contrast, we report here that GpsB is essential in ellipsoid-shaped, ovococcal Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), and depletion of GpsB leads to formation of elongated, enlarged cells containing unsegregated nucleoids and multiple, unconstricted rings of fluorescent-vancomycin staining, and eventual lysis. These phenotypes are similar to those caused by selective inhibition of Pbp2x by methicillin that prevents septal PG synthesis. Dual-protein 2D and 3D-SIM (structured illumination) immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM) showed that GpsB and FtsZ have overlapping, but not identical, patterns of localization during cell division and that multiple, unconstricted rings of division proteins FtsZ, Pbp2x, Pbp1a and MreC are in elongated cells depleted of GpsB. These patterns suggest that GpsB, like Pbp2x, mediates septal ring closure. This first dual-protein 3D-SIM IFM analysis also revealed separate positioning of Pbp2x and Pbp1a in constricting septa, consistent with two separable PG synthesis machines.

Microtubule-associated proteins MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 positively regulate axial cell growth in etiolated Arabidopsis hypocotyls.

The Arabidopsis thaliana MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 genes are members of the larger eukaryotic MAP65/ASE1/PRC gene family of microtubule-associated proteins. We created fluorescent protein fusions driven by native promoters that colocalized MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 to a subset of interphase microtubule bundles in all epidermal hypocotyl cells. MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 labeling was highly dynamic within microtubule bundles, showing episodes of linear extension and retraction coincident with microtubule growth and shortening. Dynamic colocalization of MAP65-1/2 with polymerizing microtubules provides in vivo evidence that plant cortical microtubules bundle through a microtubule-microtubule templating mechanism. Analysis of etiolated hypocotyl length in map65-1 and map65-2 mutants revealed a critical role for MAP65-2 in modulating axial cell growth. Double map65-1 map65-2 mutants showed significant growth retardation with no obvious cell swelling, twisting, or morphological defects. Surprisingly, interphase microtubules formed coaligned arrays transverse to the plant growth axis in dark-grown and GA(4)-treated light-grown map65-1 map65-2 mutant plants. We conclude that MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 play a critical role in the microtubule-dependent mechanism for specifying axial cell growth in the expanding hypocotyl, independent of any mechanical role in microtubule array organization.

Use of dextran sulfate in tourniquet-induced skeletal muscle reperfusion injury.

BACKGROUND: Lower extremity ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI)-prolonged ischemia and the subsequent restoration of circulation-may result from thrombotic occlusion, embolism, trauma, or tourniquet application in surgery. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of low-molecular-weight dextran sulfate (DXS) on skeletal muscle IRI. METHODS: Rats were subjected to 3 h of ischemia and 2 or 24 h of reperfusion. To induce ischemia the femoral artery was clamped and a tourniquet placed under the maintenance of the venous return. DXS was injected systemically 10 min before reperfusion. Muscle and lung tissue samples were analyzed for deposition of immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgG, C1q, C3b/c, fibrin, and expression of vascular endothelial-cadherin and bradykinin receptors b1 and b2. RESULTS: Antibody deposition in reperfused legs was reduced by DXS after 2 h (P < 0.001, IgM and IgG) and 24 h (P < 0.001, IgM), C3b/c deposition was reduced in muscle and lung tissue (P < 0.001), whereas C1q deposition was reduced only in muscle (P < 0.05). DXS reduced fibrin deposits in contralateral legs after 24 h of reperfusion but did not reduce edema in muscle and lung tissue or improve muscle viability. Bradykinin receptor b1 and vascular endothelial-cadherin expression were increased in lung tissue after 24 h of reperfusion in DXS-treated and non-treated rats but bradykinin receptor b2 was not affected by IRI. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to studies in myocardial infarction, DXS did not reduce IRI in this model. Neither edema formation nor viability was improved, whereas deposition of complement and coagulation components was significantly reduced. Our data suggest that skeletal muscle IRI may not be caused by the complement or coagulation alone, but the kinin system may play an important role.

Elongasome core proteins and class A PBP1a display zonal, processive movement at the midcell of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Ovoid-shaped bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), have two spatially separated peptidoglycan (PG) synthase nanomachines that locate zonally to the midcell of dividing cells. The septal PG synthase bPBP2x:FtsW closes the septum of dividing pneumococcal cells, whereas the elongasome located on the outer edge of the septal annulus synthesizes peripheral PG outward. We showed previously by sm-TIRFm that the septal PG synthase moves circumferentially at midcell, driven by PG synthesis and not by FtsZ treadmilling. The pneumococcal elongasome consists of the PG synthase bPBP2b:RodA, regulators MreC, MreD, and RodZ, but not MreB, and genetically associated proteins Class A aPBP1a and muramidase MpgA. Given its zonal location separate from FtsZ, it was of considerable interest to determine the dynamics of proteins in the pneumococcal elongasome. We found that bPBP2b, RodA, and MreC move circumferentially with the same velocities and durations at midcell, driven by PG synthesis. However, outside of the midcell zone, the majority of these elongasome proteins move diffusively over the entire surface of cells. Depletion of MreC resulted in loss of circumferential movement of bPBP2b, and bPBP2b and RodA require each other for localization and circumferential movement. Notably, a fraction of aPBP1a molecules also moved circumferentially at midcell with velocities similar to those of components of the core elongasome, but for shorter durations. Other aPBP1a molecules were static at midcell or diffusing over cell bodies. Last, MpgA displayed non-processive, subdiffusive motion that was largely confined to the midcell region and less frequently detected over the cell body.

MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 promote cell proliferation and axial growth in Arabidopsis roots.

We investigated the role of the Arabidopsis microtubule associated proteins 65-1 and 65-2 (MAP65-1 and MAP65-2) in the control of axial root growth. Transgenic plants expressing fluorescent fusion proteins from native promoters indicated exactly overlapping accumulation of MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 in the root tip and elongation zone. Nearly identical protein accumulation patterns were observed when MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 were expressed behind a constitutive CaMV 35S promoter, suggesting a level of post-transcriptional control that restricts these proteins to rapidly growing portions of the root. Co-expression of MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 fusion proteins showed precise co-localization to interphase and cytokinetic microtubule arrays. In interphase root tip cells, the fluorescent protein fusions labeled microtubules that were organized into a variety of different array patterns. In the rapidly growing cells of the root elongation zone, we found MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 co-localized exclusively to the lateral faces of cells that were axially extending. Genetic analysis showed that MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 are coordinately required for proper root elongation. Double map65-1-1 map65-2-2 mutant roots from dark-grown plants contained 50% fewer cells per file than wild-type roots, but we found no evidence that cytokinesis was disrupted. We additionally discovered that cell length was significantly shorter in the mature regions of the root beyond the zone where MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 accumulated. Our data indicate that MAP65-1 and MAP65-2 play a critical role in root growth by promoting cell proliferation and axial extension.