Biceps femoris long head muscle and aponeurosis geometry in males with and without a history of hamstring strain injury.

OBJECTIVES: Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) commonly affect the proximal biceps femoris long head (BFlh) musculotendinous junction. Biomechanical modeling suggests narrow proximal BFlh aponeuroses and large muscle-to-aponeurosis width ratios increase localized tissue strains and presumably risk of HSI. This study aimed to determine if BFlh muscle and proximal aponeurosis geometry differed between limbs with and without a history of HSI. METHODS: Twenty-six recreationally active males with (n = 13) and without (n = 13) a history of unilateral HSI in the last 24 months underwent magnetic resonance imaging of both thighs. BFlh muscle and proximal aponeurosis cross-sectional areas, length, volume, and interface area between muscle and aponeurosis were extracted. Previously injured limbs were compared to uninjured contralateral and control limbs for discrete variables and ratios, and along the relative length of tissues using statistical parametric mapping. RESULTS: Previously injured limbs displayed significantly smaller muscle-to-aponeurosis volume ratios (p = 0.029, Wilcoxon effect size (ES) = 0.43) and larger proximal BFlh aponeurosis volumes (p = 0.019, ES = 0.46) than control limbs with no history of HSI. No significant differences were found between previously injured and uninjured contralateral limbs for any outcome measure (p = 0.216-1.000, ES = 0.01-0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Aponeurosis geometry differed between limbs with and without a history of HSI. The significantly larger BFlh proximal aponeuroses and smaller muscle-to-aponeurosis volume ratios in previously injured limbs could alter the strain experienced in muscle adjacent to the musculotendinous junction during active lengthening. Future research is required to determine if geometric differences influence the risk of re-injury and whether they can be altered via targeted training.

Intrinsic motor neuron excitability is increased after resistance training in older adults.

This study investigated the effects of high-intensity resistance training on estimates of the motor neuron persistent inward current (PIC) in older adults. Seventeen participants (68.5 ± 2.8 yr) completed a 2-wk nonexercise control period followed by 6 wk of resistance training. Surface electromyographic signals were collected with two 32-channel electrodes placed over soleus to investigate motor unit discharge rates. Paired motor unit analysis was used to calculate delta frequency (ΔF) as an estimate of PIC amplitudes during 1) triangular-shaped contractions to 20% of maximum torque capacity and 2) trapezoidal- and triangular-shaped contractions to 20% and 40% of maximum torque capacity, respectively, to understand their ability to modulate PICs as contraction intensity increases. Maximal strength and functional capacity tests were also assessed. For the 20% triangular-shaped contractions, ΔF [0.58-0.87 peaks per second (pps); P ≤ 0.015] and peak discharge rates (0.78-0.99 pps; P ≤ 0.005) increased after training, indicating increased PIC amplitude. PIC modulation also improved after training. During the control period, mean ΔF differences between 20% trapezoidal-shaped and 40% triangular-shaped contractions were 0.09-0.18 pps (P = 0.448 and 0.109, respectively), which increased to 0.44 pps (P < 0.001) after training. Also, changes in ΔF showed moderate to very large correlations (r = 0.39-0.82) with changes in peak discharge rates and broad measures of motor function. Our findings indicate that increased motor neuron excitability is a potential mechanism underpinning training-induced improvements in motor neuron discharge rate, strength, and motor function in older adults. This increased excitability is likely mediated by enhanced PIC amplitudes, which are larger at higher contraction intensities.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Resistance training elicited important alterations in soleus intrinsic motor neuronal excitability, likely mediated by enhanced persistent inward current (PIC) amplitude, in older adults. Estimates of PICs increased after the training period, accompanied by an enhanced ability to increase PIC amplitudes at higher contraction intensities. Our data also suggest that changes in PIC contribution to self-sustained discharging may contribute to increases in motor neuron discharge rates, maximal strength, and functional capacity in older adults after resistance training.

Runners with mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy have greater triceps surae intracortical inhibition than healthy controls.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and muscle function in the triceps surae of runners with mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy (AT). METHODS: Runners with (n = 11) and without (n = 13) AT were recruited. Plantar flexor isometric peak torque and rate of torque development (RTD) were measured using an isokinetic dynamometer. Triceps surae endurance was measured as single-leg heel raise (SLHR) to failure test. SICI was assessed using paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation during a sustained contraction at 10% of plantar flexor isometric peak torque. RESULTS: Triceps surae SICI was 14.3% (95% CI: -2.1 to 26.4) higher in AT than in the control group (57.9%, 95% CI: 36.2 to 79.6; and 43.6% 95% CI: 16.2 to 71.1, p = 0.032) irrespective of the tested muscle. AT performed 16 (95% CI: 7.9 to 23.3, p < 0.001) fewer SLHR repetitions on the symptomatic side compared with controls, and 14 (95% CI: 5.8 to 22.0, p = 0.004), fewer SLHR repetitions on the non-symptomatic compared with controls. We found no between-groups differences in isometric peak torque (p = 0.971) or RTD (p = 0.815). PERSPECTIVE: Our data suggest greater intracortical inhibition for the triceps surae muscles for the AT group accompanied by reduced SLHR endurance, without deficits in isometric peak torque or RTD. The increased SICI observed in the AT group could be negatively influencing triceps surae endurance; thus, rehabilitation aiming to reduce intracortical inhibition should be considered to improve patient outcomes. Furthermore, SLHR is a useful clinical tool to assess plantar flexor function in AT patients.

Effects of three neuromuscular electrical stimulation methods on muscle force production and neuromuscular fatigue.

This study compared the acute responses of three neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) methods on muscle torque-time integral (TTI) and neuromuscular fatigue. Narrow-pulse (0.2 ms; NP), wide-pulse (1 ms; WP), and tendon vibration superimposed onto wide-pulse (WP + VIB)-NMES conditions were applied to sixteen healthy individuals (n = 16) in three separate sessions in a randomized order. Stimulation intensity was set to elicit 20% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC); the stimulus pattern comprised four sets of 20 repetitions (5 s On and 5 s Off) with a one-minute inter-set interval. TTI was measured for each NMES condition and MVC, voluntary activation (VA), peak twitch torque (Peaktwitch ), and peak soleus (EMGSOL ), medial (EMGMG ), and lateral gastrocnemius (EMGLG ) electromyography were measured before and immediately after each NMES condition. TTI was higher during WP + VIB (19.63 ± 6.34 MVC.s, mean difference = 3.66, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.501) than during WP (15.97 ± 4.79 MVC.s) condition. TTI was higher during WP + VIB (mean difference = 3.79, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.626) than during NP (15.84 ± 3.73 MVC.s) condition. MVC and Peaktwitch forces decreased (p ≤ 0.001) immediately after all conditions. No changes were observed for VA (p = 0.365). EMGSOL amplitude reduced (p = 0.040) only after NP, yet EMGLG and EMGMG amplitudes decreased immediately after all conditions (p = 0.003 and p = 0.013, respectively). WP + VIB produced a higher TTI than WP and NP-NMES, with similar amounts of neuromuscular fatigue across protocols. All NMES protocols induced similar amounts of peripheral fatigue and reduced EMG amplitudes.

Lower knee flexion and hip extension rate of torque development in athletes with previous hamstring strain injury.

Persistent deficits in strength and voluntary activation have been observed in athletes with a history of hamstring strain injury. The mechanisms contributing to these deficits are poorly understood and consequently may not be appropriately addressed during rehabilitation. This study aimed to investigate the impact of intended knee flexor contraction mode (concentric, eccentric or isometric) on the rate of torque development and surface electromyography (sEMG) rise in athletes with and without a history of unilateral hamstring strain injury. The impact of the previous injury on hip extensor rate of torque development was also investigated. Previously injured limbs exhibited a slower rate of torque development (mean difference = -31%, p = 0.02, Cohen's d = 0.62) and biceps femoris rate of sEMG rise (mean difference = -181% · s-1, p = 0.003, Cohen's d = 1.10) during intended eccentric knee flexor contractions compared with control limbs. Previously injured (mean difference = -29%, p = 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.85) and contralateral uninjured limbs (mean difference = -31%, p = 0.007, Cohen's d = 0.73) exhibited a slower rate of torque development during isometric hip extensor contractions compared with control limbs. These findings may highlight lower levels of descending input to hamstring motoneurons in previously injured athletes.

Estimates of persistent inward currents increase with the level of voluntary drive in low-threshold motor units of plantar flexor muscles.

This study tested whether estimates of persistent inward currents (PICs) in the human plantar flexors would increase with the level of voluntary drive. High-density surface electromyograms were collected from soleus and gastrocnemius medialis of 21 participants (29.2 ± 2.6 yr) during ramp-shaped isometric contractions to 10%, 20%, and 30% (torque rise and decline of 2%/s and 30-s duration) of each participant's maximal torque. Motor units identified in all the contraction intensities were included in the paired-motor unit analysis to calculate delta frequency (ΔF) and estimate the PICs. ΔF is the difference in discharge rate of the control unit at the time of recruitment and derecruitment of the test unit. Increases in PICs were observed from 10% to 20% [Δ = 0.6 pulse per second (pps); P < 0.001] and from 20% to 30% (Δ = 0.5 pps; P < 0.001) in soleus and from 10% to 20% (Δ = 1.2 pps; P < 0.001) but not from 20% to 30% (Δ = 0.09 pps; P = 0.724) in gastrocnemius medialis. Maximal discharge rate increased for soleus and gastrocnemius medialis from 10% to 20% [Δ = 1.75 pps (P < 0.001) and Δ = 2.43 pps (P < 0.001), respectively] and from 20% to 30% [Δ = 0.80 pps (P < 0.017) and Δ = 0.92 pps (P = 0.002), respectively]. The repeated-measures correlation identified associations between ΔF and increases in maximal discharge rate for soleus (r = 0.64; P < 0.001) and gastrocnemius medialis (r = 0.77; P < 0.001). An increase in voluntary drive tends to increase PIC strength, which has key implications for the control of force but also for comparisons between muscles or studies when relative force levels might be different. Increases in voluntary descending drive amplify PICs in humans and provide an important spinal mechanism for motor unit discharging, and thus force output modulation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Animal experiments and computational models have shown that motor neurons can amplify the synaptic input they receive via persistent inward currents. Here we show in humans that this amplification varies proportionally to the magnitude of the voluntary drive to the muscle.

Hamstring and gluteal activation during high-speed overground running: Impact of prior strain injury.

This study examined the spatial patterns of hamstring and gluteal muscle activation during high-speed overground running in limbs with and without aprior hamstring strain injury. Ten active males with arecent (<18 month) unilateral biceps femoris long head (BFLH) strain injury underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging before and immediately after arepeat-sprint running protocol. Transverse relaxation (T2) time, an index of muscle activation, of the BFLH and short head (BFSH), semitendinosus (ST), semimembranosus (SM), gluteus maximus (GMAX) and medius (GMED) was assessed pre-post exercise. No significant between-limb differences in running-induced mean T2 changes were observed (p = 0.949), however, decision tree induction revealed that previously injured limbs were characterised by highly variable intramuscular activation of the ST (SD5.3). T2 times increased more for GMAX than all other muscles (all p< 0.001, d= 0.5-2.5). Further, T2 changes were greater for ST than BFSH, SM, GMED, and BFLH (all p≤ 0.001, d= 0.5-2.9); and were greater for BFLH than BFSH, SM, and GMED (all p< 0.001, d= 1.2-1.6). Athletes display heterogenous patterns of posterior thigh activation when sprinting (GMAX>ST>BFLH>GMED>SM>BFSH) and may exhibit altered intramuscular hamstring activation after returning to sport from BFLH strain injury.

The effect of previous shoulder pain on supraspinatus tendon thickness changes following swimming practice.

OBJECTIVES: To assess if swimming practice results in changes in supraspinatus tendon thickness, acromiohumeral distance, and occupational ratio in shoulders of elite swimmers with and without a history of shoulder pain. DESIGN: Case-Control study. METHODS: A convenience sample of fifty elite swimmers (14-22 years) were recruited for this study. Groups were defined by the presence (history of pain, N = 37) or absence (pain free, N = 63) of significant interfering shoulder pain within the previous 6 months. The current study analyzed supraspinatus tendon thickness, acromiohumeral distance, and the occupational ratio, through the use of ultrasound. Measures were taken prior to swim practice; immediately after practice; and 6 hours post-practice. RESULTS: No statistically significant difference in supraspinatus tendon thickness, acromiohumeral distance or ratio between shoulders with and without a history of pain were found at rest. Following a swimming practice, both shoulders with and without a history of pain had a significant increase in tendon thickness (0.27 & 0.17 mm; P ≤ .001 & <.001). The increase in thickness was significantly greater in the history of pain shoulders compared to pain-free shoulders (P = .003). At 6-hour post-practice, the history of pain shoulders was still significantly thicker than their pre-practice (rested) levels (P = .007). Despite changes in tendon thickness, the occupational ratio remained non-significant between groups. CONCLUSION: Shoulders with a history of pain show an altered response to swimming practice. The results of the current study have implications for training load and injury management. It should prompt investigation into how the tendon reacts under varying load conditions.

Hamstring muscle activation and morphology are significantly altered 1-6 years after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with semitendinosus graft.

PURPOSE: Harvest of the semitendinosus (ST) tendon for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) causes persistent hypotrophy of this muscle even after a return to sport, although it is unclear if hamstring activation patterns are altered during eccentric exercise. It was hypothesised that in comparison with contralateral control limbs, limbs with previous ACLR involving ST grafts would display (i) deficits in ST activation during maximal eccentric exercise; (ii) smaller ST muscle volumes and anatomical cross-sectional areas (ACSAs); and (iii) lower eccentric knee flexor strength. METHODS: Fourteen athletes who had successfully returned to sport after unilateral ACLR involving ST tendon graft were recruited. Median time since surgery was 49 months (range 12-78 months). Participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of their thighs before and after the Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) and percentage change in transverse (T2) relaxation time was used as an index of hamstring activation. Muscle volumes and ACSAs were determined from MRI and distal ST tendons were evaluated via ultrasound. Eccentric knee flexor strength was determined during the NHE. RESULTS: Exercise-induced T2 change was lower for ST muscles in surgical than control limbs (95% CI - 3.8 to - 16.0%). Both ST muscle volume (95% CI - 57.1 to - 104.7 cm3) and ACSA (95% CI - 1.9 to - 5.0 cm2) were markedly lower in surgical limbs. Semimembranosus (95% CI 5.5-14.0 cm3) and biceps femoris short head (95% CI 0.6-11.0 cm3) volumes were slightly higher in surgical limbs. No between-limb difference in eccentric knee flexor strength was observed (95% CI 33 N to - 74 N). CONCLUSION: ST activation is significantly lower in surgical than control limbs during eccentric knee flexor exercise 1-6 years after ACLR with ST graft. Lower levels of ST activation may partially explain this muscle's persistent hypotrophy post ACLR and have implications for the design of more effective rehabilitation programs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Running exposure is associated with the risk of hamstring strain injury in elite Australian footballers.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the association between running exposure and the risk of hamstring strain injury (HSI) in elite Australian footballers. METHODS: Elite Australian footballers (n=220) from 5 different teams participated. Global positioning system (GPS) data were provided for every athlete for each training session and match for the entire 2015 season. The occurrences of HSIs throughout the study period were reported. Receiver operator characteristic curve analyses were performed and the relative risk (RR) of subsequent HSI was calculated for absolute and relative running exposure variables related to distance covered above 10 and 24 km/hour in the preceding week/s. RESULTS: 30 prospective HSIs occurred. For the absolute running exposure variables, weekly distance covered above 24 km/hour (>653 m, RR=3.4, 95% CI 1.6 to 7.2, sensitivity=0.52, specificity=0.76, area under the curve (AUC)=0.63) had the largest influence on the risk of HSI in the following week. For the relative running exposure variables, distance covered above 24 km/hour as a percentage of distance covered above 10 km/hour (>2.5%, RR=6.3, 95% CI 1.5 to 26.7, sensitivity=0.93, specificity=0.34, AUC=0.63) had the largest influence on the risk of HSI in the following week. Despite significant increases in the RR of HSI, the predictive capacity of these variables was limited. CONCLUSIONS: An association exists between absolute and relative running exposure variables and elite Australian footballers' risk of subsequent HSI, with the association strongest when examining data within 7-14 days. Despite this, the use of running exposure variables displayed limited clinical utility to predict HSI at the individual level.

Impact of exercise selection on hamstring muscle activation.

OBJECTIVE: To determine which strength training exercises selectively activate the biceps femoris long head (BFLongHead) muscle. METHODS: We recruited 24 recreationally active men for this two-part observational study. Part 1: We explored the amplitudes and the ratios of lateral (BF) to medial hamstring (MH) normalised electromyography (nEMG) during the concentric and eccentric phases of 10 common strength training exercises. Part 2: We used functional MRI (fMRI) to determine the spatial patterns of hamstring activation during two exercises which (1) most selectively and (2) least selectively activated the BF in part 1. RESULTS: Eccentrically, the largest BF/MH nEMG ratio occurred in the 45° hip-extension exercise; the lowest was in the Nordic hamstring (Nordic) and bent-knee bridge exercises. Concentrically, the highest BF/MH nEMG ratio occurred during the lunge and 45° hip extension; the lowest was during the leg curl and bent-knee bridge. fMRI revealed a greater BF(LongHead) to semitendinosus activation ratio in the 45° hip extension than the Nordic (p<0.001). The T2 increase after hip extension for BFLongHead, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles was greater than that for BFShortHead (p<0.001). During the Nordic, the T2 increase was greater for the semitendinosus than for the other hamstring muscles (p≤0.002). SUMMARY: We highlight the heterogeneity of hamstring activation patterns in different tasks. Hip-extension exercise selectively activates the long hamstrings, and the Nordic exercise preferentially recruits the semitendinosus. These findings have implications for strategies to prevent hamstring injury as well as potentially for clinicians targeting specific hamstring components for treatment (mechanotherapy).

Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring architecture and morphology: implications for injury prevention.

BACKGROUND: The architectural and morphological adaptations of the hamstrings in response to training with different exercises have not been explored. PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in biceps femoris long head (BFLH) fascicle length and hamstring muscle size following 10-weeks of Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) or hip extension (HE) training. METHODS: 30 recreationally active male athletes (age, 22.0±3.6 years; height, 180.4±7 cm; weight, 80.8±11.1 kg) were allocated to 1 of 3 groups: (1) HE training (n=10), NHE training (n=10), or no training (control, CON) (n=10). BFLH fascicle length was assessed before, during (Week 5) and after the intervention with a two-dimensional ultrasound. Hamstring muscle size was determined before and after training via MRI. RESULTS: Compared with baseline, BFLH fascicles were lengthened in the NHE and HE groups at mid-training (d=1.12-1.39, p<0.001) and post-training (d=1.77-2.17, p<0.001) and these changes did not differ significantly between exercises (d=0.49-0.80, p=0.279-0.976). BFLH volume increased more for the HE than the NHE (d=1.03, p=0.037) and CON (d=2.24, p<0.001) groups. Compared with the CON group, both exercises induced significant increases in semitendinosus volume (d=2.16-2.50, ≤0.002) and these increases were not significantly different (d=0.69, p=0.239). CONCLUSION: NHE and HE training both stimulate significant increases in BFLH fascicle length; however, HE training may be more effective for promoting hypertrophy in the BFLH.

Determining Criteria to Predict Repeatability of Performance in Older Adults: Using Coefficients of Variation for Strength and Functional Measures.

Reliable measures of muscle strength and functional capacity in older adults are essential. The aim of this study was to determine whether coefficients of variation (CVs) of individuals obtained at the first session can infer repeatability of performance in a subsequent session. Forty-eight healthy older adults (mean age 68.6 ± 6.1 years; age range 60-80 years) completed two assessment sessions, and on each occasion undertook: dynamometry for isometric and isokinetic quadriceps strength, 6 meter fast walk (6MFWT), timed up and go (TUG), stair climb and descent, and vertical jump. Significant linear relationships were observed between CVs in session 1 and the percentage difference between sessions 1 and 2 for torque at 60, 120, 240 and 360°/s, 6MFWT, TUG, stair climb, and stair descent. The results of this study could be used to establish criteria for determining an acceptably reliable performance in strength and functional tests.

Effect of high-speed running on hamstring strain injury risk.

BACKGROUND: Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are common within the Australian Football League (AFL) with most occurring during high-speed running (HSR). Therefore, this study investigated possible relationships between mean session running distances, session ratings of perceived exertion (s-RPE) and HSIs within AFL footballers. METHODS: Global positioning system (GPS)-derived running distances and s-RPE for all matches and training sessions over two AFL seasons were obtained from one AFL team. All HSIs were documented and each player's running distances and s-RPE were standardised to their 2-yearly session average, then compared between injured and uninjured players in the 4 weeks (weeks -1, -2, -3 and -4) preceding each injury. RESULTS: Higher than 'typical' (ie, z=0) HSR session means were associated with a greater likelihood of HSI (week -1: OR=6.44, 95% CI=2.99 to 14.41, p<0.001; summed weeks -1 and -2: OR=3.06, 95% CI=2.03 to 4.75, p<0.001; summed weeks -1, -2 and -3: OR=2.22, 95% CI=1.66 to 3.04, p<0.001; and summed weeks -1, -2, -3 and -4: OR=1.96, 95% CI=1.54 to 2.51, p<0.001). However, trivial differences were observed between injured and uninjured groups for standardised s-RPE, total distance travelled and distances covered whilst accelerating and decelerating. Increasing AFL experience was associated with a decreased HSI risk (OR=0.77, 95% CI 0.57 to 0.97, p=0.02). Furthermore, HSR data modelling indicated that reducing mean distances in week -1 may decrease the probability of HSI. CONCLUSIONS: Exposing players to large and rapid increases in HSR distances above their 2-yearly session average increased the odds of HSI. However, reducing HSR in week -1 may offset HSI risk.

Hamstring strength and flexibility after hamstring strain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the evidence base related to hamstring strength and flexibility in previously injured hamstrings. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: A systematic literature search was conducted of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and EMBASE from inception to August 2015. INCLUSION CRITERIA: Full-text English articles which included studies which assessed at least one measure of hamstring strength or flexibility in men and women with prior hamstring strain injury within 24 months of the testing date. RESULTS: Twenty-eight studies were included in the review. Previously injured legs demonstrated deficits across several variables. Lower isometric strength was found <7 days postinjury (d=-1.72), but this did not persist beyond 7 days after injury. The passive straight leg raise was restricted at multiple time points after injury (<10 days, d=-1.12; 10-20 days, d=-0.74; 20-30 days, d=-0.40), but not after 40-50 days postinjury. Deficits remained after return to play in isokinetically measured concentric (60°/s, d=-0.33) and Nordic eccentric knee flexor strength (d=-0.39). The conventional hamstring to quadricep strength ratios were also reduced well after return to play (60:60°/s, d=-0.32; 240:240°/s, d=-0.43) and functional (30:240°/s, d=-0.88), but these effects were inconsistent across measurement methods. CONCLUSIONS: After hamstring strain, acute isometric and passive straight leg raise deficits resolve within 20-50 days. Deficits in eccentric and concentric strength and strength ratios persist after return to play, but this effect was inconsistent across measurement methods. Flexibility and isometric strength should be monitored throughout rehabilitation, but dynamic strength should be assessed at and following return to play.

Architectural adaptations of muscle to training and injury: a narrative review outlining the contributions by fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness.

BACKGROUND: The architectural characteristics of muscle (fascicle length, pennation angle muscle thickness) respond to varying forms of stimuli (eg, training, immobilisation and injury). Architectural changes following injury are thought to occur in response to the restricted range of motion experienced during rehabilitation and the associated neuromuscular inhibition. However, it is unknown if these differences exist prior to injury, and had a role in injury occuring (prospectively), or if they occur in response to the incident itself (retrospectively). Considering that the structure of a muscle will influence how it functions, it is of interest to understand how these architectural variations may alter how a muscle acts with reference to the force-length and force-velocity relationships. OBJECTIVES: Our narrative review provides an overview of muscle architectural adaptations to training and injury. Specifically, we (1) describe the methods used to measure muscle architecture; (2) detail the impact that architectural alterations following training interventions, immobilisation and injury have on force production and (3) present a hypothesis on how neuromuscular inhibition could cause maladaptations to muscle architecture following injury.

Short biceps femoris fascicles and eccentric knee flexor weakness increase the risk of hamstring injury in elite football (soccer): a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND/AIM: To investigate the role of eccentric knee flexor strength, between-limb imbalance and biceps femoris long head (BFlh) fascicle length on the risk of future hamstring strain injury (HSI). METHODS: Elite soccer players (n=152) from eight different teams participated. Eccentric knee flexor strength during the Nordic hamstring exercise and BFlh fascicle length were assessed at the beginning of preseason. The occurrences of HSIs following this were recorded by the team medical staff. Relative risk (RR) was determined for univariate data, and logistic regression was employed for multivariate data. RESULTS: Twenty seven new HSIs were reported. Eccentric knee flexor strength below 337 N (RR=4.4; 95% CI 1.1 to 17.5) and possessing BFlh fascicles shorter than 10.56 cm (RR=4.1; 95% CI 1.9 to 8.7) significantly increased the risk of a HSI. Multivariate logistic regression revealed significant effects when combinations of age, history of HSI, eccentric knee flexor strength and BFlh fascicle length were explored. From these analyses the likelihood of a future HSI in older athletes or those with a HSI history was reduced if high levels of eccentric knee flexor strength and longer BFlh fascicles were present. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of short BFlh fascicles and low levels of eccentric knee flexor strength in elite soccer players increases the risk of future HSI. The greater risk of a future HSI in older players or those with a previous HSI is reduced when they have longer BFlh fascicles and high levels of eccentric strength.

The financial cost of hamstring strain injuries in the Australian Football League.

BACKGROUND: Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) have remained the most prevalent injury in the Australian Football League (AFL) over the past 21 regular seasons. The effect of HSIs in sports is often expressed as regular season games missed due to injury. However, the financial cost of athletes missing games due to injury has not been investigated. The aim of this report is to estimate the financial cost of games missed due to HSIs in the AFL. METHOD: Data were collected using publicly available information from the AFL's injury report and the official AFL annual report for the past 10 competitive AFL seasons. Average athlete salary and injury epidemiology data were used to determine the average yearly financial cost of HSIs for AFL clubs and the average financial cost of a single HSI over this time period. RESULTS: Across the observed period, average yearly financial cost of HSIs per club increased by 71% compared with a 43% increase in average yearly athlete salary. Over the same time period the average financial cost of a single HSI increased by 56% from $A25,603 in 2003 to $A40,021 in 2012, despite little change in the HSI rates during the period. CONCLUSIONS: The observed increased financial cost of HSIs was ultimately explained by the failure of teams to decrease HSI rates, but coupled with increases in athlete salaries over the past 10 season. The information presented in this report highlights the financial cost of HSIs and other sporting injuries, raising greater awareness and the need for further funding for research into injury prevention strategies to maximise economical return for investment in athletes.

Hamstring and knee injuries are associated with isometric hip and trunk muscle strength in elite Australian Rules and Rugby League players.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated relationships between isometric trunk and hip extensor strength, lumbar muscle morphology, and the risk of hamstring and knee ligament injuries in Australian Football League and National Rugby League players. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: Trunk and hip extensor strength, multifidus and quadratus lumborum cross-sectional area were measured during the 2020 pre-season. Logistic regressions and decision trees were employed to explore associations between maximum strength, strength endurance, multifidus and quadratus lumborum cross-sectional area, age, previous injuries, and hamstring and knee ligament injury risk. RESULTS: Greater strength endurance [odds ratio = 0.42 (0.23-0.74), p = 0.004] and maximum strength [odds ratio = 0.55 (0.31-0.94), p = 0.039] reduced hamstring injury risk. Increased risk of knee ligament injuries was associated with larger multifidus [odds ratio = 1.66 (1.14-2.45), p = 0.008] and higher multifidus to quadratus lumborum ratio (odds ratio = 1.57 (1.13-2.23), p = 0.008]. Decision tree models indicated that low strength endurance (< 99 Nm) characterised hamstring strains, while high (≥ 1.33) multifidus to quadratus lumborum ratio mitigated risk. Knee ligament injuries were associated with larger (≥ 8.49 cm2) multifidus, greater (≥ 1.25) multifidus to quadratus lumborum ratio, and lower maximum strength (< 9.24 N/kg). CONCLUSIONS: Players with lower trunk and hip extensor maximum strength and strength endurance had increased risk of hamstring injuries, while knee ligament injury risk was elevated with larger multifidus cross-sectional area, higher multifidus to quadratus lumborum ratio, and lower maximum trunk and hip extensor strength.