Innovative Strategies in Microvascular Head and Neck Reconstruction.

The field of reconstructive microsurgery has witnessed considerable advancements over the years, driven by improvements in technology, imaging, surgical instruments, increased understanding of perforator anatomy, and experience with microsurgery. However, within the subset of microvascular head and neck reconstruction, novel strategies are needed to improve and optimize both patient aesthetics and post-operative function. Given the disfiguring defects that are encountered following trauma or oncologic resections, the reconstructive microsurgeon must always aim to innovate new approaches, reject historic premises, and challenge established paradigms to further achieve improvement in both aesthetic and functional outcomes. The authors aim to provide an up-to-date review of innovations in head and neck reconstruction for oncologic defects.

Evolution of Medical Modeling and 3D Printing in Microvascular Midface Reconstruction: Literature Review and Experience at MD Anderson Cancer Center.

Reconstruction of the midface represents a challenge for reconstructive microsurgeons given the formidable task of restoring both aesthetics and functionality. In particular, preservation of proper globe positioning and maintaining normal vision are as important as restoring the proper projection of the midface and enabling a patient to speak and eat as normally as possible. The introduction of virtual surgical planning (VSP) and medical modeling has revolutionized bony reconstruction of the craniofacial skeleton; however, the overwhelming majority of studies have focused on mandibular reconstruction. Here, we introduce some novel advances in utilizing VSP for bony reconstruction of the midface. The present review aims (1) to provide a review of the literature on the use of VSP in midface reconstruction and (2) to provide some insights from the authors' early experience.

Free fibula mandible reconstruction for osteoradionecrosis is more challenging than for primary cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Osteoradionecrosis (ORN) of the mandible is an unfortunate potential sequela of radiotherapy for head and neck cancer. In advanced cases of ORN, mandibulectomy, and free fibula flap reconstruction are required. We hypothesized that patients undergoing fibula free flap reconstruction and mandibulectomy for ORN pose unique challenges and experience more complications than patients undergoing fibula free flaps after oncologic mandibulectomy. METHODS: After IRB approval, we created a database of all free fibula flaps for mandible reconstruction from April 2005 through February 2019. Medical records were retrospectively reviewed for patient and surgical characteristics and postoperative outcomes. RESULTS: Four-hundred seventy-nine patients met the inclusion criteria (168 ORN vs. 311 non-ORN patients). Propensity-matching was performed based on age, BMI, smoking status, preoperative chemotherapy, and virtual surgery planning use, which yielded 159 patients in each group. ORN patients received more double-skin-island fibula flaps than non-OR patients (20.8% vs. 5.7%, p < 0.001). Recipient artery other than the facial artery was utilized more commonly in ORN patients (42.1% vs. 17.0%, p < 0.001). In the unmatched cohort, ORN patients had higher rates of delayed wound healing (26.2% vs. 16.8%, p = 0.01) and surgical site infections (21.4% vs. 13.2%, p = 0.02). Rates of flap loss, return to the operating room, hematoma, operative time, and length of stay were similar between the groups. On logistic regression analysis, osteoradionecrosis was an independent risk factor for delayed wound healing. CONCLUSION: Based on these data, mandibular reconstruction with fibula flaps for osteoradionecrosis appears more complicated than mandible reconstruction following de novo cancer resection. Surgeons should anticipate employing two skin islands for intraoral and extraoral resurfacing, utilizing unconventional recipient vessels, and managing the delayed wound healing that ensues more commonly than non-ORN patients.

Subpectoral Implant Placement Is Not Protective against Postmastectomy Radiotherapy-Related Complications Compared to Prepectoral Placement.

BACKGROUND: Postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT) is associated with altered cosmetic outcomes and higher complication rates in implant-based breast reconstruction (IBR). Conventional wisdom suggests that muscle coverage is somewhat protective against PMRT-related complications. In this study, the authors compared surgical outcomes in patients who underwent two-stage prepectoral versus subpectoral IBR in the setting of PMRT. METHODS: The authors performed a retrospective cohort study of patients who underwent mastectomy and PMRT with two-stage IBR from 2016 to 2019. The primary outcome was breast-related complications, including device infection; the secondary outcome was device explantation. RESULTS: The authors identified 179 reconstructions (101 prepectoral and 78 subpectoral) in 172 patients with a mean follow-up time of 39.7 ± 14.4 months. There were no differences between the prepectoral and subpectoral reconstructions in rates of breast-related complications (26.7% and 21.8%, respectively; P = 0.274), device infection (18.8% and 15.4%, respectively; P = 0.307), skin flap necrosis (5.0% and 1.3%, respectively; P = 0.232), or device explantation (20.8% and 14.1%, respectively; P = 0.117). In adjusted models, compared with prepectoral device placement, subpectoral device placement was not associated with a lower risk of breast-related complications [hazard ratio (HR), 0.75; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.41 to 1.36], device infection (HR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.35 to 1.49), or device explantation (HR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.28 to 1.19). CONCLUSIONS: Device placement plane was not predictive of complication rates in IBR in the setting of PMRT. Two-stage prepectoral IBR provides safe long-term outcomes with acceptable postoperative complication rates comparable to those with subpectoral IBR, even in the setting of PMRT. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

Outcomes for 160 Consecutive Lateral Arm Free Flaps for Head and Neck Reconstruction.

OBJECTIVE: Examine outcomes for lateral arm autologous tissue transfer in head and neck reconstruction. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Tertiary cancer center. METHODS: All patients who underwent traditional lateral arm, extended lateral arm, and lateral forearm flaps for head and neck reconstruction from 2012 to 2022 were assessed. Disabilities of the arm, shoulder, and hand (DASH) was measured. Factors associated with complications and enteral or mixed diet were evaluated by multivariable regression. RESULTS: Among 160 patients followed for a median of 2.3 ± 2.1 years, defects were 54% oral tongue, 18% external, 9% maxilla, 8% buccal mucosa, 9% floor of mouth, and 3% pharynx. Flap types (and median pedicle lengths) were 41% traditional lateral arm (8 cm), 25% extended lateral arm (11.5 cm), and 34% lateral forearm (14 cm). All donor sites were closed primarily; 19.6% and 0% of patients had increased DASH scores 2 and 12 weeks after reconstruction. Major complications occurred in 18.1% of patients, including 6.3% reoperation, 6.9% readmission, 3.7% fistula, and 1.8% flap loss. Complications were independently associated with peripheral vascular disease (odds ratio [OR]: 5.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.5-21.6, P = .01), pharyngeal defects (OR: 11.3, 95% CI: 1.4-94.5, P = .025), and interposition vein grafts (OR: 3.78, 95% CI: 1.1-13.3, P = .037). CONCLUSION: The lateral arm free flap was safe, versatile, and reliable for head and neck reconstruction with low donor-site morbidity. Complications occurred in a fifth of patients and were associated with peripheral vascular disease, pharyngeal defects, and vein grafts.

Premastectomy Radiotherapy and Immediate Breast Reconstruction: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Premastectomy radiotherapy (PreMRT) is a new treatment sequence to avoid the adverse effects of radiotherapy on the final breast reconstruction while achieving the benefits of immediate breast reconstruction (IMBR). Objective: To evaluate outcomes among patients who received PreMRT and regional nodal irradiation (RNI) followed by mastectomy and IMBR. Design, Setting, and Participants: This was a phase 2 single-center randomized clinical trial conducted between August 3, 2018, and August 2, 2022, evaluating the feasibility and safety of PreMRT and RNI (including internal mammary lymph nodes). Patients with cT0-T3, N0-N3b breast cancer and a recommendation for radiotherapy were eligible. Intervention: This trial evaluated outcomes after PreMRT followed by mastectomy and IMBR. Patients were randomized to receive either hypofractionated (40.05 Gy/15 fractions) or conventionally fractionated (50 Gy/25 fractions) RNI. Main Outcome and Measures: The primary outcome was reconstructive failure, defined as complete autologous flap loss. Demographic, treatment, and outcomes data were collected, and associations between multiple variables and outcomes were evaluated. Analysis was performed on an intent-to-treat basis. Results: Fifty patients were enrolled. Among 49 evaluable patients, the median age was 48 years (range, 31-72 years), and 46 patients (94%) received neoadjuvant systemic therapy. Twenty-five patients received 50 Gy in 25 fractions to the breast and 45 Gy in 25 fractions to regional nodes, and 24 patients received 40.05 Gy in 15 fractions to the breast and 37.5 Gy in 15 fractions to regional nodes, including internal mammary lymph nodes. Forty-eight patients underwent mastectomy with IMBR, at a median of 23 days (IQR, 20-28.5 days) after radiotherapy. Forty-one patients had microvascular autologous flap reconstruction, 5 underwent latissimus dorsi pedicled flap reconstruction, and 2 had tissue expander placement. There were no complete autologous flap losses, and 1 patient underwent tissue expander explantation. Eight of 48 patients (17%) had mastectomy skin flap necrosis of the treated breast, of whom 1 underwent reoperation. During follow-up (median, 29.7 months [range, 10.1-65.2 months]), there were no locoregional recurrences or distant metastasis. Conclusions and Relevance: This randomized clinical trial found PreMRT and RNI followed by mastectomy and microvascular autologous flap IMBR to be feasible and safe. Based on these results, a larger randomized clinical trial of hypofractionated vs conventionally fractionated PreMRT has been started (NCT05774678). Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02912312.

Vascularized Condyle Reconstruction with Free Medial Femoral Trochlea and Fibular Flow-through Flaps.

The free fibula flap is the gold standard in reconstruction of oncologic mandibular defects. When the mandibular condyle is resected, reconstruction of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) continues to pose a unique challenge to the reconstructive surgeon. Several conventional methods have been described, including costochondral grafts, bone grafts, and alloplastic prostheses. These nonvascularized options are rarely employed in the oncologic patient receiving postoperative radiation therapy due to high rates of resorption, nonunion, and failure. The authors describe a novel technique for mandibular and TMJ reconstruction utilizing the fibula free flap as a flow through for a medial femoral trochlea flap for vascularized mandible and condylar reconstruction. This technique provides a vascularized cartilaginous surface to articulate with the glenoid fossa, making it an attractive option for the oncologic patient undergoing postoperative radiation therapy.

The Medial Femoral Condyle Flap: A Novel Versatile Tool for Complex Microvascular Maxillofacial Reconstruction.

SUMMARY: The medial femoral condyle flap is well-described for reconstruction of small bone defects of the upper and lower extremities. There are limited case reports of its use in other anatomic sites, particularly for reconstruction of complex head and neck defects. In the setting of previous radiation and contaminated fields, vascularized bone is generally preferred to bone grafts, cadaveric allografts, or synthetic implants. The authors present a case series of complex craniofacial defects involving the midface that were reconstructed using medial femoral condyle flaps, focusing on the type of defect and lessons learned from their early experience to promote awareness of this flap among microsurgeons, who may wish to consider the potential of this flap and incorporate its use into their armamentarium. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Down with the Bean Bag: A Multi-institutional Experience with Total Latissimus Muscle Free Flap Harvest in the Supine Position.

The latissimus muscle continues to be a head to toe workhorse in free tissue transfer for coverage of large defects. Traditional full muscle harvest is performed in the lateral decubitus position which is frequently suboptimal or requires position change based on the recipient site and laterality. We present a multi-institutional case series of full muscle flap harvest from the supine position for a range of defects in 32 patients. The relevant operative setup and technique are described. In our experience, supine harvest has become the preferred open harvest technique compared to lateral positioning for both optimal exposure of the pedicle and reduction in operating time.

The Full Continuum of Robotic Breast Surgery: Robotic-assisted Mastectomy, Robotic DIEP Flap, and Robotic Supermicrosurgery.

In recent years, robotic surgery has rapidly expanded to improve surgical outcomes in a variety of surgical subspecialties. Although plastic surgery has taken longer to integrate robotic surgery into practice, the advantages of robotic-assisted surgery, including improved visualization and resolution, minimally invasive approaches, and the ability to surpass human precision and scale, have driven its more recent adoption into plastic surgery. Currently, procedures performed with robotic assistance that are considered part of the continuum of surgical treatment of breast cancer include robotic-assisted nipple-sparing mastectomy, reconstruction with the robotic latissimus dorsi flap or the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap, and robotic microsurgery for the flap anastomosis and/or the surgical treatment of lymphedema. The authors provide an overview of robotic surgery and how it has been integrated into the field of plastic surgery, as well as a review of the most common procedures within the field where robotic assistance can be incorporated: nipple-sparing mastectomy, robotic latissimus flap, robotic deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap breast reconstruction, and microvascular anastomoses.

The lateral forearm flap versus traditional upper extremity flaps: A comparison of donor site morbidity and flap thickness.

INTRODUCTION: The lateral forearm flap (LFF) is a thin fasciocutaneous flap with a donor site that can be closed primarily. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of donor site morbidity and hand function was performed in patients who underwent a radial forearm flap (RFF), ulnar artery perforator flap (UAPF), or LFF. Flap thickness was evaluated radiographically in 50 control patients. RESULTS: Of 134 patients (lateral forearm flap: n = 49, RFF: n = 47, UAPF: n = 38), the LFF demonstrated significantly faster return to baseline hand grip strength (3 months vs. 12 months in RFF and UAPF; p < 0.001), had significantly fewer donor site complications (6.1% compared to 6.4% in RFF and 28.9% in UAPF; p = 0.003) and fewer sensory deficits (2.0% compared to 6.4% in RFF and 15.8% in UAPF sites; p = 0.013). The radiographic study confirmed the LFF to be the thinnest of all upper extremity flap options. CONCLUSIONS: The LFF is an excellent forearm-based flap option with thin, pliable tissue and low donor site morbidity.

Robotic DIEP Patient Selection: Analysis of CT Angiography.

BACKGROUND: Preoperative CTA is widely used and extensively studied for planning of DIEP flap breast reconstruction. However, its utility in planning robotic DIEP harvest is undescribed. METHODS: The authors conducted a retrospective study of consecutive patients presenting to the clinics of select plastic surgeons between 2017 and 2021 for abdominally based autologous breast reconstruction. CTA measurements of intramuscular perforator distance and perforator-to-external iliac distance were used as predicted robotic and open fascial incision lengths, respectively. It was documented if the predicted robotic incision would avoid crossing the arcuate line. Operative notes were reviewed for fascial incision length and number of perforators harvested. Predicted and actual robotic fascial incision lengths were compared. RESULTS: CTAs were reviewed for 49 patients (98 hemiabdomens). Inadequate or no perforators were identified on CTA in 18% of hemiabdomens. Mean predicted robotic and open DIEP fascial incisions were 3.1 cm and 12.2 cm, respectively, giving robotic approach fascial incision benefit of 9.1 cm (P < 0.001). The predicted robotic incision avoided crossing the arcuate line in 71% of hemiabdomens. Thirteen patients (28%) underwent robotic DIEP harvest. Actual robotic fascial incision length averaged 3.5 cm, which was not significantly different from the mean predicted fascial incision length (P = 0.374). Robotic DIEP flaps had fewer perforators (1.8 versus 2.6, P = 0.058). CONCLUSION: CTA is useful for identifying patients with anatomy favorable for robotic DIEP flap harvest.

Safety and efficacy of renal artery stenting following suboptimal renal angioplasty for de novo and restenotic ostial lesions: results from a nonrandomized, prospective multicenter registry.

PURPOSE: This registry was designed to evaluate the Bridge Extra Support renal stent system (Medtronic, Santa Rosa, California) in the treatment of renal artery ostial lesions following suboptimal percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA). MATERIALS AND METHODS: This consecutive, nonrandomized, prospective, multicenter registry enrolled 188 patients between April 1999 and May 2002 with single de novo or restenotic renal artery ostial lesions (>or=70% stenosis) who underwent implantation of a balloon-expandable stent immediately following unsuccessful PTRA. Primary safety endpoints were major adverse clinical events (MACE) at 30 days and 9-12 months. The primary efficacy endpoint was absence of binary restenosis at 9-12 months with duplex ultrasonography (US). Secondary endpoints were acute success and quality-of-life (QOL) improvements (blood pressure, antihypertensive medications, renal function). The long-term effect of renal artery stenting on blood pressure and renal function was assessed to 36 months. RESULTS: The acute procedure and clinical success rates were 92.9%. At 30 days, the MACE rate was 3.2%, with no instances of target lesion revascularization (TLR). At 9-12 months, the MACE rate was 16.5%, with five (2.7%) deaths and 14 (7.4%) instances of TLR. The rate of restenosis at 9-12 months with duplex US was 12.6%, and 94% of patients had QOL improvements. A significant reduction in systolic blood pressure occurred following renal artery stenting and persisted to 36 months. CONCLUSIONS: Renal artery stenting is safe and efficacious in the treatment of single de novo and restenotic renal artery ostial lesions following suboptimal PTRA.

Is Our Effort Appropriately Valued? An Analysis of Work Relative Value Units in Immediate Breast Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: The work relative value units system was developed as a quantifier of physician labor, technical skill, and training time required to complete surgical procedures. Thus, more complex surgical procedures that require greater technical skills and are more time consuming should yield a greater compensation. It is known that prosthetic breast reconstruction reimburses more per hour than autologous breast reconstruction. However, there are limited data comparing work relative value units and operative times in breast reconstruction procedures. Therefore, this study aims to compare mean operative times and work relative value units per minute across three different modalities of breast reconstruction. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database was performed to identify all patients undergoing implant-, pedicle-, and free flap-based reconstruction over a 6-year period. Calculation and comparison of median operative times, work relative value units, and dollars per minute was performed. RESULTS: A total of 3135 patients were included in the analysis: 2249 (71.7 percent) underwent immediate implant-based reconstruction, 745 (23.8 percent) underwent immediate free flap-based breast reconstruction, and 141 (4.5 percent) underwent immediate pedicle flap-based reconstruction. Patients were distributed in unilateral and bilateral cases. Consistently, median operative time was greater for free flap breast reconstruction, followed by pedicle flap- and implant-based reconstruction (p < 0.0001). However, work relative value units per minute and dollars per minute were found to be higher for prosthetic reconstruction in all comparisons (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: In the authors' analysis, more complex and time-consuming procedures resulted in a lower reimbursement in dollars and work relative value units per minute for the procedure.

Complex endovascular treatment for critical limb ischemia in poor surgical candidates: a pilot study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effectiveness of complex endovascular treatment for limb salvage in patients with critical limb ischemia. METHODS: In a prospective study, 23 patients (13 men; mean age 70 +/- 11 years, range 44-87) with ischemic ulceration or gangrene of 25 lower limbs were enrolled at 4 sites to evaluate treatment with excimer laser recanalization followed by balloon angioplasty with optional stenting in the superficial femoral, popliteal, and/or tibial arteries. RESULTS: Multiple lesions (mean 3.1, range 1-8) were treated in most cases. Reduction of stenosis/occlusion to <50% was achieved in 22 (88%) limbs. Individual cases of vessel perforation, inability to cross the lesion, and excessive residual stenosis accounted for the 3 failures. Over a 6-month period, 4 patients died of cardiac comorbidity and 1 was lost to follow-up. Adverse events included 4 minor and 2 below-knee amputations, 4 secondary angioplasties, and 4 femorodistal bypasses. The mean wound area reduction was 70% at 3 months, increasing to 89% at 6 months. According to life table analysis, the limb salvage rate was 90% with bypass and 69% without in the successfully treated patients (corresponding intention-to-treat rates were 79% and 61%). CONCLUSIONS: Complex endovascular treatment combining laser debulking and angioplasty/stenting offers an alternative for patients with critical limb ischemia who lack good surgical options.