Metabolism of cisplatin in the organs of Rattus norvegicus: role of Glutathione S-transferase P1.

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) play an important role in the biotransformation of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics as well as in the metabolic inactivation of pharmacologically active substances, including anticancer drugs. Using cisplatin as the prototype drug, we investigated if any correlation exists between GSH levels, GSTs/GSTP1 activity and the fate of cisplatin in different organs of Rattus norvegicus. GSH-cisplatin complex was prepared, purified by anion-exchange chromatography and subjected to mass spectroscopic analysis which confirmed the structure to be diglutathione-monoplatinum (diglutathionylplatinum). Purified diglutathionylplatinum was used to quantify metabolite formed in different tissue homogenates. Specific GSTP1 activity was found to be highest in kidneys, which correlated positively with the levels of metabolite formed in renal tissues. Altogether, our results showed that cisplatin metabolism in different organs of rats correlated positively with specific GSTP1 activities and this enzyme may be a critical determinant of extent of cellular uptake or retention of cisplatin in renal and liver tissues.

Role of glutathione in cancer pathophysiology and therapeutic interventions.

Glutathione (GSH) is an important intracellular antioxidant that instills several vital roles within a cell including maintenance of the redox state, drug detoxification, and cellular protection from damage by free radicals, peroxides and toxins. Molecular alterations in the components of the GSH system in various tumors can lead to increased survival and enhanced tumor drug resistance. Early identification of the importance of intracellular GSH to detoxification reactions has now led to investigating the potential importance that GSH chemistry has on signal transduction, molecular regulation of cellular physiology and regulation of apoptosis pathway. Several therapeutic agents that target this system have been developed and used experimentally and clinically in an attempt to improve cancer chemotherapy. This review highlights different roles played by GSH that finally regulate tumor growth and advances in the use of GSH-based drugs to specifically target this detoxifying system in cancer treatment as a means to increase therapeutic response and decrease chemotherapeutic drug resistance.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of the human glutathione S-transferase P1 by epidermal growth factor receptor.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene amplification, mutations, and/or aberrant activation are frequent abnormalities in malignant gliomas and other human cancers and have been associated with an aggressive clinical course and a poor therapeutic outcome. Elevated glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1), a major drug-metabolizing and stress response signaling protein, is also associated with drug resistance and poor clinical outcome in gliomas and other cancers. Here, we provide evidence that GSTP1 is a downstream EGFR target and that EGFR binds to and phosphorylates tyrosine residues in the GSTP1 protein in vitro and in vivo. Mass spectrometry and mutagenesis analyses in a cell-free system and in gliomas cells identified Tyr-7 and Tyr-198 as major EGFR-specific phospho-acceptor residues in the GSTP1 protein. The phosphorylation increased GSTP1 enzymatic activity significantly, and computer-based modeling showed a corresponding increase in electronegativity of the GSTP1 active site. In human glioma and breast cancer cells, epidermal growth factor stimulation rapidly increased GSTP1 tyrosine phosphorylation and decreased cisplatin sensitivity. Lapatinib, a clinically active EGFR inhibitor, significantly reversed the epidermal growth factor-induced cisplatin resistance. These data define phosphorylation and activation of GSTP1 by EGFR as a novel, heretofore unrecognized component of the EGFR signaling network and a novel mechanism of tumor drug resistance, particularly in tumors with elevated GSTP1 and/or activated EGFR.

The impact of intracellular generation of nitric oxide on the radiation response of human tumor cells.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a potent radiosensitizer of hypoxic mammalian cells. There have been many reports demonstrating radiosensitization in vitro and in vivo by the use of NO donors to generate NO by chemical means or by producing agents that mimic the free radical mechanism(s) of NO for potentiating radiosensitivity. However, much of this work has been done without taking account of the endogenous NO that is generated in tumor cells by NO synthase (NOS) in vitro or in tumor cells and host cells in solid tumors in vivo. To evaluate the contribution of intracellular generated NO to cellular radiosensitivity, we exposed human HT1080 and MDA231 tumor cells to a cytokine cocktail that results in an increase in cellular NOS expression to a level that is seen in many human solid tumors. We also carried out parallel studies to determine the radiosensitivity of HT1080 and MDA231 cells engineered to constitutively overexpress the iNOS gene. When cells are treated with cytokines under anoxic conditions (<0.01% O(2)), there is up to a 9-15-fold increase in NOS expression, but no detectable NO is generated (since O(2) is required for the generation of NO via the NOS-mediated conversion of arginine to citrulline). As a consequence, when these cells are irradiated under hypoxic conditions, no radiosensitization is observed. However, as the oxygen tension was increased, the amount of NO generated also increased, and we show that this NO then contributes to an overall increase in the radiosensitivity of cells. For example, at 1% O(2) in control HT1080 cells, with little measurable NOS activity, the dose of radiation required to reduce survival by 90% was 6 Gy compared to 10 Gy in anoxic conditions. After cytokine treatment, the level of NO generated at 1% O(2) was significantly increased and the dose of radiation needed for 90% cell killing was reduced further to 4 Gy. The presence of the NOS inhibitor N(G)-methyl-l-arginine (NMLA) shortly before and during irradiation ablated this increase in radiosensitivity, confirming that the effect was due to the generation of NO. We conclude that cytokine-mediated up-regulation of the NOS expression in tumor cells can produce sufficient NO to significantly increase the cytotoxic effect of radiation and that this is particularly apparent at intermediate oxygen concentrations.

Radiation enhances the therapeutic effect of Banoxantrone in hypoxic tumour cells with elevated levels of nitric oxide synthase.

Banoxantrone (AQ4N) is a prototype hypoxia selective cytotoxin that is activated by haem containing reductases such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). In the present study, we evaluate whether elevated levels of iNOS in human tumour cells will improve their sensitivity to AQ4N. Further, we examine the potential of radiation to increase cellular toxicity of AQ4N under normoxic (aerobic) and hypoxic conditions. We employed an expression vector containing the cDNA for human iNOS to transfect human fibrosarcoma HT1080 tumour cells. Alternatively, parental cells were exposed to a cytokine cocktail to induce iNOS gene expression and enzymatic activity. The cells were then treated with AQ4N alone and in combination with radiation in the presence or absence of the iNOS inhibitor N-methyl-L­arginine. In parental cells, AQ4N showed little difference in toxicity under hypoxic verses normoxic conditions. Notably, cells with upregulated iNOS activity showed a significant increase in sensitivity to AQ4N, but only under conditions of reduced oxygenation. When these cells were exposed to the combination of AQ4N and radiation, there was much greater cell killing than that observed with either modality alone. In the clinical development of hypoxia selective cytotoxins it is likely they will be used in combination with radiotherapy. In the present study, we demonstrated that AQ4N can selectively kill hypoxic cells via an iNOS-dependent mechanism. This hypoxia-selective effect can be augmented by combining AQ4N with radiation without increasing cytotoxicity to well­oxygenated tissues. Collectively, these results suggest that targeting hypoxic tumours with high levels of iNOS with a combination of AQ4N and radiotherapy could be a useful clinical therapeutic strategy.

Cytoprotective and regulatory functions of glutathione S-transferases in cancer cell proliferation and cell death.

PURPOSE: Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) family of enzymes is best known for their cytoprotective role and their involvement in the development of anticancer drug resistance. Recently, emergence of non-detoxifying properties of GSTs has provided them with significant biological importance. Addressing the complex interactions of GSTs with regulatory kinases will help in understanding its precise role in tumor pathophysiology and in designing GST-centered anticancer strategies. METHODS: We reviewed all published literature addressing the detoxification and regulatory roles of GSTs in the altered biology of cancer and evaluating novel agents targeting GSTs for cancer therapy. RESULTS: The role of GSTs, especially glutathione S-transferase P1 isoform in tumoral drug resistance, has been the cause of intense debate. GSTs have been demonstrated to interact with different protein partners and modulate signaling pathways that control cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. These specific functions of GSTs could lead to the development of new therapeutic approaches and to the identification of some interesting candidates for preclinical and clinical development. This review focuses on the crucial role played by GSTs in the development of resistance to anticancer agents and the major findings regarding the different modes of action of GSTs to regulate cell signaling.

Nitric oxide: role in tumour biology and iNOS/NO-based anticancer therapies.

PURPOSE: The diatomic radical nitric oxide (NO) has been the cause of intense debate with implication in carcinogenesis, tumour progression, invasion, angiogenesis and modulation of therapeutic responses. The tumour biology of NO is highly complex, and this review summarises the various protective and damaging mode of action of NO. METHODS: We reviewed all published literature addressing the complexities of the role of NO in the altered biology of cancer and evaluating promising therapeutic roles of NO/iNOS for anti-cancer therapy. RESULTS: The available experimental evidences highlight contrasting pro- and anti-tumour effects of iNOS expression, which appear to be reconciled by consideration of the concentrations of NO involved, the temporo-spatial mode of NO action, intracellular targets, cellular redox state and the timing of an apoptotic stimulus. Several clinical and experimental studies indicate that the presence of NO in tumour microenvironment is detrimental to tumour cell survival and metastasis. In contrast, numerous reports suggest that NO can have tumour-promoting effects. NO is a 'double-edged sword' in cancer, and this review offers insight into the dichotomous nature of NO and discuss the therapeutic gain that can be achieved by manipulating tumour NO. CONCLUSIONS: NO may exert a biphasic response, such that when NO levels go beyond a critical concentration that would be suitable for tumour growth and survival, growth arrest and/or apoptotic pathways are initiated. These characteristics of NO have been exploited therapeutically with impressive effects in pre-clinical models of cancer to slow tumour growth and to enhance the efficacy of both chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Serine phosphorylation of glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) by PKCα enhances GSTP1-dependent cisplatin metabolism and resistance in human glioma cells.

Recently, we reported that the human GSTP1 is phosphorylated and functionally activated by the PKC class of serine/threonine kinases. In this study, we investigated the contribution of this post-translational modification of GSTP1 to tumor cisplatin resistance. Using two malignant glioma cell lines, MGR1 and MGR3, the ability of PKCα-phosphorylated GSTP1 to catalyze the conjugation of cisplatin to glutathione was assessed and correlated with cisplatin sensitivity and cisplatin-induced DNA interstrand cross-links and apoptosis of the cells. The results showed PKCα activation and associated phosphorylation of GSTP1 to correlate significantly with increased glutathionylplatinum formation, decreased DNA interstrand cross-link formation and increased cisplatin resistance. Following PKC activation, the IC(50) of cisplatin increased from 13.63µM to 36.49µM in MGR1 and from 20.75µM to 38.45µM in MGR3. In both cell lines, siRNA-mediated GSTP1 or PKCα transcriptional suppression similarly decreased cisplatin IC(50) and was associated with decreased intracellular levels of glutathionylplatinum metabolite. Combined inhibition/transcriptional suppression of both PKCα and GSTP1 was synergistic in enhancing cisplatin sensitivity. Although, cisplatin-induced apoptosis was associated with the translocation of Bax to mitochondria, release of cytochrome c and caspase-3/7 activation, the levels of relocalized Bax and cytochrome c were significantly greater following GSTP1 knockdown. These results support a mechanism of cisplatin resistance mediated by the PKCα-dependent serine phosphorylation of GSTP1 and its associated increased cisplatin metabolism, and suggest the potential of simultaneous targeting of GSTP1 and PKCα to improve the efficacy of cisplatin therapy.

Effects of cytokine-induced macrophages on the response of tumor cells to banoxantrone (AQ4N).

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are found in many solid tumors and have often been shown to accumulate in the hypoxic regions surrounding areas of necrosis. TAMs are the major site of expression of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), a heme-containing homodimeric enzyme consisting of oxygenase and reductase domains. The latter has a high degree of sequence homology to cytochrome P450 reductase and a functional consequence of this is the ability of NOS, under hypoxic conditions, to activate the bioreductive drugs tirapazamine and RSU1069. Banoxantrone (AQ4N) is a bioreductive prodrug activated in hypoxia by an oxygen-dependent two-electron reductive process to yield the topoisomerase II inhibitor AQ4. A feature of this process is that the final product could potentially show bystander cell killing. Thus, in this study, we investigated the ability of inducible NOS (iNOS)-expressing TAMs to activate AQ4N and elicit toxicity in cocultured human tumor cells. Murine macrophages were induced to overexpress iNOS by treatment with a combination of cytokines, mixed with HT1080 and HCT116 human tumor cells, and the toxicity of AQ4N was determined under aerobic or hypoxic conditions. The aerobic toxicity of AQ4N toward tumor cells was not affected through coculturing with macrophages. However, under hypoxic conditions, the induction of iNOS activity in the macrophages was associated with an increase in AQ4N metabolism and a substantial increase in tumor cell toxicity, which was dependent on the proportion of macrophages in the culture. This study is the first demonstration of TAM-mediated prodrug activation to result in bystander killing of human tumor cells.