Misinformation, internet honey trading and beekeepers drive a plant invasion.

Biological invasions are a major human induced global change that is threatening global biodiversity by homogenizing the world's fauna and flora. Species spread because humans have moved species across geographical boundaries and have changed ecological factors that structure ecosystems, such as nitrogen deposition, disturbance, etc. Many biological invasions are caused accidentally, as a byproduct of human travel and commerce driven product shipping. However, humans also have spread many species intentionally because of perceived benefits. Of interest is the role of the recent exponential growth in information exchange via internet social media in driving biological invasions. To date, this has not been examined. Here, we show that for one such invasive species, goldenrod, social networks spread misleading and incomplete information that is enhancing the spread of goldenrod invasions into new environments. We show that the notion of goldenrod honey as a "superfood" with unsupported healing properties is driving a demand that leads beekeepers to produce goldenrod honey. Social networks provide a forum for such information exchange and this is leading to further spread of goldenrod in many countries where goldenrod is not native, such as Poland. However, this informal social information exchange ignores laws that focus on preventing the further spread of invasive species and the strong negative effects that goldenrod has on native ecosystems, including floral resources that negatively impact honeybee performance. Thus, scientifically unsupported information on "superfoods" such as goldenrod honey that is disseminated through social internet networks has real world consequences such as increased goldenrod invasions into novel geographical regions which decreases native biodiversity.

Shell colour, temperature, (micro)habitat structure and predator pressure affect the behaviour of Cepaea nemoralis.

Although shell colour polymorphism of the land snail Cepaea nemoralis is a well-known phenomenon, proximate and ultimate factors driving its evolution remain uncertain. Polymorphic species show variation in behavioural responses to selective forces. Therefore, we estimated effects of various environmental factors (temperature, humidity, food availability, (micro)habitat structure and predatory pressure) on behavioural response (frequency of locomotion, climbing and hiding) of C. nemoralis morphs, in experimental and natural conditions. In the experimental part of study, the frequency of locomotion was negatively affected by temperature and the presence of food and positively influenced by the presence of light. Morphs significantly differed in behavioural responses to environmental variability. Pink mid-banded and yellow five-banded morphs climbed less often and hide in shelter more often than yellow and pink unbanded individuals when temperature was low and food was absent. Snails fed most often at moderate temperature compared to low and high temperatures. Field investigations partially confirmed differences among morphs in frequency of climbing, but not in terms of probability of hiding in sheltered sites. In natural colonies, temperature and (micro)habitat structure significantly affected frequency of climbing as well as hiding in shelter. Snails more often hid in sheltered sites where thrushes preyed on Cepaea. Tendency of unbanded morphs to climb trees may have evolved under avian predatory pressure as thrushes forage on a ground. Tendency of banded morphs to hide in sheltered sites may reflect prey preferences for cryptic background. The results implicate that differential behaviour of C. nemoralis morphs compensate for their morphological and physiological limitations of adaptation to habitat.

Sexual differences in food preferences in the white stork: an experimental study.

Sex differences in the foraging ecology of monomorphic species are poorly understood, due to problems with gender identification in field studies. In the current study, we used experimental conditions to investigate the food preferences of the white stork Ciconia ciconia, an opportunistic species in terms of food, but characterised by a low level of sexual dimorphism. During a 10-day experiment, 29 individuals (20 females and 9 males) were studied by means of a 'cafeteria test' in which the storks' diet consisted of mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, insects and earthworms. The storks preferred food characterised by high calorific and protein values such as mammals, birds and fish. Sexes differed strongly in their preferences; males preferred mammals, whereas females preferred birds. Moreover, females consumed insects and earthworms less often than males. Interestingly, males spent significantly less time foraging than females. We have demonstrated that the white stork exhibits clear sexual differences in food preferences which are mostly attributable to differences in parental duties, physiology and anatomy.

Loss of migration and urbanization in birds: a case study of the blackbird (Turdus merula).

Many organisms have invaded urban habitats, although the underlying factors initially promoting urbanization remain poorly understood. Partial migration may facilitate urbanization because such populations benefit from surplus food in urban environments during winter, and hence enjoy reduced fitness costs of migratory deaths. We tested this hypothesis in the European blackbird Turdus merula, which has been urbanized since the 19th century, by compiling information on timing of urbanization, migratory status, and population density for 99 cities across the continent. Timing of urbanization was spatially auto-correlated at scales up to 600 km. Analyses of timing of urbanization revealed that urbanization occurred earlier in partially migratory and resident populations than in migratory populations of blackbirds. Independently, this effect was most pronounced in the range of the distribution that currently has the highest population density, suggesting that urbanization facilitated population growth. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that timing of urbanization is facilitated by partial migration, resulting in subsequent residency and population growth.

Little Owl Aggression and Territory in Urban and Rural Landscapes.

Urbanization is a major land use change across the globe with vast effects on wildlife. In this paper, we studied (1) the territorial displays of Little Owls in urban and rural landscapes, analyzing also (2) the size and habitat composition of the territories, and (3) the factors affecting territory size in both landscapes. To do that, we used t-tests, Principal Components Analysis, and General Linear mixed model procedures. The territory size was smaller in urban than in rural landscapes. Urban territories of Little Owls are characterized by a lower cover of grassland, tall crops, short crops, gardens, and orchards, as well as a higher cover of built-up areas than territories in rural landscapes. Territory size in rural landscapes was negatively correlated with seasonal progress and positively correlated with altitude. The rate of territorial displays was similar between urban and rural territories; however, birds differentially utilized various structures. In urban territories, birds mostly used buildings, whereas in rural territories, birds used electric pylons and trees. The compositional differences between territories in the two landscapes may have important consequences for other behavior types and possibly reproductive output in this species.

Evaluating tramway infrastructure on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Tramways in urban areas for mass transit has been suggested to have a lower environmental footprint than roads. However, studies on the impact of tramways and the surrounding infrastructure on biodiversity is extremely rare despite the potential ecological effects associated with this anthropogenic feature. Surprisingly, we found fewer than 10 papers published on tramway-wildlife interactions, which is significantly lower (vs dozens of thousands) than that of other transportation methods. As tramways and stations may be managed sustainably by planting short vegetation on the track and roofs of tramway stations, they may be good examples of land-sharing policies in green urban planning, improving both biodiversity and people's well-being. The potential environmental benefits of green practices for commercially available tramways should be strictly tested and applied, especially in the context of the growing popularity of tramway systems worldwide.

Social information modifies the associations between forest fragmentation and the abundance of a passerine bird.

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the main factors driving the occurrence and abundance of species in the landscape. However, the local occurrence and abundance of species may also depend on conspecific and heterospecific social information e.g. clues of animals' presence or their voices. We investigated the impact of the interaction between different types of social information and forest fragmentation on the abundance of the song thrush, Turdus philomelos, in Central Europe. Three types of social information (attractive, repulsive, and mixed) and procedural control were broadcasted via loudspeakers in 150 forest patches that varied in size and isolation metrics. Repulsive social information (cues of presence of predator) decreased abundance of song thrush. Also, the repulsive social information changed the association between forest patch isolation, size and the abundance. Attractive social information (songs of the studied thrush) had no effect on song thrush abundance. However, the attractive social information reversed the positive correlation between habitat patch size and the abundance. Mixed social information (both repulsive and attractive) had no impact on the abundance nor interacted with habitat fragmentation. The observed effects mostly did not last to the next breeding season. Overall, our findings indicate that lands of fear and social attraction could modify the effect of habitat fragmentation on the species abundance but these effects probably are not long-lasting.

Multiple invasive species affect germination, growth, and photosynthesis of native weeds and crops in experiments.

Alien plant species regularly and simultaneously invade agricultural landscapes and ecosystems; however, the effects of co-invasion on crop production and native biodiversity have rarely been studied. Secondary metabolites produced by alien plants may be allelopathic; if they enter the soil, they may be transported by agricultural activities, negatively affecting crop yield and biodiversity. It is unknown whether substances from different alien species in combination have a greater impact on crops and wild plants than if they are from only one of the alien species. In this study, we used a set of common garden experiments to test the hypothesis that mixed extracts from two common invasive species have synergistic effects on crops and weeds (defined as all non-crop plants) in European agricultural fields compared to single-species extracts. We found that both the combined and individual extracts had detrimental effects on the seed germination, seedling growth, biomass, and photosynthetic performance of both crops and weeds. We found that the negative effect of mixed extracts was not additive and that crop plants were more strongly affected by invasive species extracts than the weeds. Our results are important for managing invasive species in unique ecosystems on agricultural land and preventing economic losses in yield production.

Short-lived ants take greater risks during food collection.

Life-history theory predicts that organisms should alter their behavior if life expectancy declines. Recent theoretical work has focused on worker life expectancy as an ultimate factor in allocating risk-related tasks among the workforce in social insects. A key prediction of this evolutionary model is that workers with shorter life expectancy should perform riskier tasks. We tested this hypothesis, using laboratory colonies of the ant Myrmica scabrinodis. We modified foraging so that it differed in level of risk by manipulating distances, temperatures, and the presence of competitors on foraging patches. The life expectancies of foragers were shortened by poisoning with carbon dioxide or by injury through removal of their propodeal spines. Both treatments significantly shortened worker life expectancy in comparison with untreated ants. We show, for the first time, that foragers with a shorter life expectancy foraged under risk more often than foragers in the control group. Thus, a worker's strategy of foraging under risky circumstances appears to be fine-tuned to its life expectancy.

Plant establishment and invasions: an increase in a seed disperser combined with land abandonment causes an invasion of the non-native walnut in Europe.

Successful invasive species often are established for a long time period before increasing exponentially in abundance. This lag phase is one of the least understood phenomena of biological invasions. Plant invasions depend on three factors: a seed source, suitable habitat and a seed disperser. The non-native walnut, Juglans regia, has been planted for centuries in Central Europe but, until recently, has not spread beyond planted areas. However, in the past 20 years, we have observed a rapid increase in walnut abundance, specifically in abandoned agricultural fields. The dominant walnut disperser is the rook, Corvus frugilegus. During the past 50 years, rooks have increased in abundance and now commonly inhabit human settlements, where walnut trees are planted. Central Europe has, in the past few decades, experienced large-scale land abandonment. Walnut seeds dispersed into ploughed fields do not survive, but when cached into ploughed and then abandoned fields, they successfully establish. Rooks preferentially cache seeds in ploughed fields. Thus, land-use change combined with disperser changes can cause rapid increase of a non-native species, allowing it to become invasive. This may have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem. Thus, species that are non-native and not invasive can become invasive as habitats and dispersers change.

COVID-19 in Memes: The Adaptive Response of Societies to the Pandemic?

COVID-19 expanded rapidly throughout the world, with enormous health, social, and economic consequences. Mental health is the most affected by extreme negative emotions and stress, but it has been an underestimated part of human life during the pandemic. We hypothesized that people may have responded to the pandemic spontaneously with increased interest in and creation of funny internet memes. Using Google and Google Trends, we revealed that the number of and interest in funny internet memes related to COVID-19 exploded during the spring 2020 lockdown. The interest in coronavirus memes was positively correlated with interest in mortality due to COVID-19 on a global scale, and positively associated with the real number of deaths and cases reported in different countries. We compared content of a random sample of 200 coronavirus memes with a random sample of 200 non-coronavirus memes found on the Internet. The sentiment analysis showed that coronavirus memes had a similar proportion of positive and negative words compared to non-coronavirus memes. However, an internet questionnaire revealed that coronavirus memes gained higher funniness scores than a random sample of non-coronavirus memes. Our results confirm that societies may have turned to humor to cope with the threat of SARS-CoV-2.

Genome size versus geographic range size in birds.

Why do some species occur in small, restricted areas, while others are distributed globally? Environmental heterogeneity increases with area and so does the number of species. Hence, diverse biotic and abiotic conditions across large ranges may lead to specific adaptations that are often linked to a species' genome size and chromosome number. Therefore, a positive association between genome size and geographic range is anticipated. Moreover, high cognitive ability in organisms would be favored by natural selection to cope with the dynamic conditions within large geographic ranges. Here, we tested these hypotheses in birds-the most mobile terrestrial vertebrates-and accounted for the effects of various confounding variables, such as body mass, relative brain mass, and geographic latitude. Using phylogenetic generalized least squares and phylogenetic confirmatory path analysis, we demonstrated that range size is positively associated with bird genome size but probably not with chromosome number. Moreover, relative brain mass had no effect on range size, whereas body mass had a possible weak and negative effect, and range size was larger at higher geographic latitudes. However, our models did not fully explain the overall variation in range size. Hence, natural selection may impose larger genomes in birds with larger geographic ranges, although there may be additional explanations for this phenomenon.

Small things are important: the value of singular point elements for birds in agricultural landscapes.

Farmland birds belong to the most endangered group of vertebrates in Europe. They are an important component of farmland biodiversity considering the numerous functions they perform (e.g. seed dispersal, improving germination, increasing gene flow, nutrient recycling, and pest control). Therefore, their decline imposes substantial risks on agricultural ecosystems. In general, farmland bird conservation includes land-use and management alterations leading to less-intensive farming and land-sparing for breeding habitats (e.g. agri-environment-climate schemes, and organic farming). However, theoretical concepts describing farmland biodiversity maintenance and applied conservation measures usually ignore the role of singular, often very small, natural or man-made elements in an agricultural landscape. These elements play a role in the populations of certain species, their biology and in the general species richness of farmland. Furthermore, the importance of these elements has never been empirically tested, which means that conservationists and practitioners are not aware of their measurable value for birds. Herein, we define and identify singular point elements in the agricultural landscape (SPELs) which are potentially important for breeding farmland birds. We also describe each SPEL and evaluate its importance for birds in farmland based on a systematic review of the available literature. Using a horizon-scanning technique, we then polled field ornithologists about their personal observations of birds in relation to SPELs and the evaluation of the potential roles of such structures for birds. We identified 17 SPELs that vary in naturalness and age: singular trees, singular shrubs, erratic boulders, puddles, electricity pylons, wind turbines, spiritual sites, hunting platforms, fence and border posts, wells, road signs, scarecrows, piles of manure, piles of brushwood/branches, piles of stones/debris, piles of lime, and haystacks. Analysis of the literature revealed knowledge gaps, because some SPELs are frequently mentioned in ecological studies (e.g. trees, shrubs, pylons), but others such as spiritual sites, stones, hunting platforms, wells, road signs, or piles of lime are ignored. Despite the fact that some authors incorporate the effects of some SPELs in their studies, little research to date has aimed to assess the impact of various SPELs on farmland bird species numbers and distribution. Horizon scanning revealed that ornithologists often observe birds on various SPELs and thus, attribute to SPELs many functions that are important for maintaining bird populations. Horizon scanning also highlighted the importance of SPELs for many declining bird species and suggested possible mitigation of negative changes in the agricultural landscape by retaining SPELs within fields. We suggest that a better understanding of the role of SPELs for farmland birds is required. We also recommend that SPELs are considered as a potential tool for the conservation of birds, and existing conservation programs such as agri-environment-climate schemes and organic farming should be updated accordingly. Finally, we suggest that SPELs are included in predictive models that evaluate habitat suitability for farmland biodiversity.

Congruence between the prioritisation of conservation problems at the local and national scale: an evaluation by environmental scientists in Poland.

The anthropogenic pressure on the environment depends on the spatial scale. It is crucial to prioritise conservation actions at different spatial scales to be cost-efficient. Using horizon scanning with the Delphi technique, we asked what the most important conservation problems are in Poland at local and national scales. Twenty-six participants, PhD students, individually identified conservation issues important at the local and national scales. Each problem was then scored and classified into broader categories during the round discussions. Text mining, cross-sectional analyses, and frequency tests were used to compare the context, importance scores, and frequency of identified problems between the two scales, respectively. A total of 115 problems were identified at the local scale and 122 at the national scale. Among them, 30 problems were identical for both scales. Importance scores were higher for national than local problems; however, this resulted from different sets of problems identified at the two scales. Problems linked to urbanisation, education, and management were associated with the local scale. Problems related to policy, forestry, and consumerism were more frequent at the national scale. An efficient conservation policy should be built hierarchically (e.g. introducing adaptive governance), implementing solutions at a national scale with the flexibility to adjust for local differences and to address the most pressing issues.

The macroecology of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Anthropocene.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has expanded rapidly throughout the world. Thus, it is important to understand how global factors linked with the functioning of the Anthropocene are responsible for the COVID-19 outbreak. We tested hypotheses that the number of COVID-19 cases, number of deaths and growth rate of recorded infections: (1) are positively associated with population density as well as (2) proportion of the human population living in urban areas as a proxies of interpersonal contact rate, (3) age of the population in a given country as an indication of that population's susceptibility to COVID-19; (4) net migration rate and (5) number of tourists as proxies of infection pressure, and negatively associated with (5) gross domestic product which is a proxy of health care quality. Data at the country level were compiled from publicly available databases and analysed with gradient boosting regression trees after controlling for confounding factors (e.g. geographic location). We found a positive association between the number of COVID-19 cases in a given country and gross domestic product, number of tourists, and geographic longitude. The number of deaths was positively associated with gross domestic product, number of tourists in a country, and geographic longitude. The effects of gross domestic product and number of tourists were non-linear, with clear thresholds above which the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths increased rapidly. The growth rate of COVID-19 cases was positively linked to the number of tourists and gross domestic product. The growth rate of COVID-19 cases was negatively associated with the mean age of the population and geographic longitude. Growth was slower in less urbanised countries. This study demonstrates that the characteristics of the human population and high mobility, but not population density, may help explain the global spread of the virus. In addition, geography, possibly via climate, may play a role in the pandemic. The unexpected positive and strong association between gross domestic product and number of cases, deaths, and growth rate suggests that COVID-19 may be a new civilisation disease affecting rich economies.

Different response of the taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity of birds to forest fragmentation.

Habitat fragmentation is considered as major threat to biodiversity worldwide. Biodiversity can be described as taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity. However, the effect of forest fragmentation on taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity is barely understood. We compare the response of taxonomic (species richness), phylogenetic and functional diversity of birds to forest fragmentation. We hypothesised that with increasing forest patch isolation and/or decreasing patch size the diversity of birds decreases but only if certain thresholds of fragmentation metrics are reached. Specifically, we hypothesized that out of the three diversity components the taxonomic diversity is the most sensitive to forest fragmentation, which means that it starts declining at larger patch size and higher connectivity values than phylogenetic and functional diversity do. We compared the three biodiversity metrics of central European bird species in a large set of forest patches located in an agricultural landscape. General additive modeling and segmented regression were used in analyses. Habitat fragmentation differentially affected studied biodiversity metrics. Bird taxonomic diversity was the most responsive towards changes in fragmentation. We observed an increase in taxonomic diversity with increasing patch area, which then stabilized after reaching certain patch size. Functional diversity turned out to be the least responsive to the fragmentation metrics and forest stand characteristics. It decreased linearly with the decreasing isolation of forest patches. Apart from the habitat fragmentation, bird taxonomic diversity but not phylogenetic diversity was positively associated with forest stand age. The lower share of dominant tree species, the highest taxonomic diversity was. While preserving a whole spectrum of forests (in terms of age, fragmentation and size) is important from the biodiversity perspective, forest bird species might need large, intact, old-growth forests. Since the large and intact forest becomes scarcer, our study underscore their importance for the preservation of forest specialist species.

The associations among the breeding performance of Osmia bicornis L. (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae), burden of pathogens and nest parasites along urbanisation gradient.

Urban environments may negatively affect the development of organisms. In host-pathogen/parasite systems, this impact may lead to increased manifestations of pathogens that decrease the success of their hosts in urban environments compared to rural ones. We tested this hypothesis in the solitary bee Osmia bicornis L. We estimated the development of bees, their reproductive success and the manifestation of different pathogens and nest parasites along an urbanisation gradient. We conducted the experiment in an urbanisation gradient in sites representing three environments: urban, suburban and rural. First, we analysed the manifestation of bacterial and fungal microorganisms in pollen loads, within dried/mummified individuals, on the surface of cocoons and on the surface of diapausing adult individuals by using the MALDI-TOF MS technique. We also verified genetic samples from diapausing individuals for the presence of the parasitic Nosema apis (Zandler, 1909) and N. ceranae (Fries et al., 1996) species. Finally, we assessed the level of reproductive success and manifestations of brood parasites. Not any biological material from the nests was infected by pathogenic microorganisms. This result indicates that the nests are not a reservoir of the pathogenic bacteria and that O. bicornis offspring are not a source or vectors of these pathogens to the surrounding environment and indirectly to other bee species. In urban sites, there was a lower number of parasites than in suburban and rural environments. The presence of parasites was negatively correlated with the reproductive success and may be a limiting factor for O. bicornis populations. We also found that urban sites had the highest indices of reproductive success and the lowest number of breeding failures compared to suburban and rural sites. Moreover, bacterial and fungal transmission is not a serious threat in the studied region.

The effect of railways on bird diversity in farmland.

With a length exceeding 210,000 km in Europe, railways are common linear features dissecting landscapes. However, the impact of railway networks on biodiversity is equivocal. In this study, we investigated the effect of railway embankments on bird diversity components in an agricultural landscape in southern Poland. Forty transects including 20 along railways and 20 as controls in open fields were established. Birds were counted twice in 2009, and environmental characteristics were estimated for each transect. Ordination techniques and generalized additive models were used to compare species composition, richness, abundance, conservation status, population trends and phylogenetic and functional diversity indices between railway and field transects. Species richness and phylogenetic diversity but not abundance nor functional diversity were higher along railway transects than along field transects. Diversity indices near railways, mostly species richness and phylogenetic diversity, were positively associated with bush cover, wet meadow cover, wetland cover and the slope of the railway but negatively associated with dry meadow cover and field cover. Our study shows that railway embankments may be beneficial for bird diversity but probably do not alter the functional properties of bird communities as much as open fields. Proper management of these linear habitats may increase their value for birds and contribute to long-term bird community persistence.

Roads affect the spatial structure of butterfly communities in grassland patches.

Roads may have an important negative effect on animal dispersal rate and mortality and thus the functioning of local populations. However, road verges may be surrogate habitats for invertebrates. This creates a conservation dilemma around the impact of roads on invertebrates. Further, the effect of roads on invertebrates is much less understood than that on vertebrates. We studied the effect of roads on butterflies by surveying abundance, species richness and composition, and mortality in ten grassland patches along high-traffic roads (∼50-100 vehicles per hour) and ten reference grassland patches next to unpaved roads with very little traffic (<1 vehicle per day) in southern Poland. Five 200-m transects parallel to the road were established in every grassland patch: at a road verge, 25 m from the verge, in the patch interior, and 25 m from the boundary between the grassland and field and at the grassland-arable field boundary. Moreover, one 200-m transect located on a road was established to collect roadkilled butterflies. The butterfly species richness but not abundance was slightly higher in grassland patches adjacent to roads than in reference grassland patches. Butterfly species composition in grasslands adjacent to roads differed from that in the reference patches. Proximity of a road increased variability in butterfly abundances within grassland patches. Grassland patches bordering roads had higher butterfly abundance and variation in species composition in some parts of the grassland patch than in other parts. These effects were not found in reference grassland patches, where butterfly species and abundance were more homogenously distributed in a patch. Plant species composition did not explain butterfly species. However, variance partitioning revealed that the presence of a road explained the highest proportion of variation in butterfly species composition, followed by plant species richness and abundance in grassland patches. Road mortality was low, and the number of roadkilled butterflies was less than 5% of that of all live butterflies. Nevertheless, the number and species composition of roadkilled butterflies were well explained by the butterfly communities living in road verges but not by total butterfly community structure in grassland patches. This study is the first to show that butterfly assemblages are altered by roads. These results indicate that: (1) grassland patches located near roads are at least as good habitats for butterflies as reference grassland patches are, (2) roads create a gradient of local environmental conditions that increases variation in the abundance of certain species and perhaps increases total species richness in grassland patches located along roads, and (3) the impact of roads on butterflies is at least partially independent of the effect of plants on butterflies. Furthermore, (4) the direct impact of road mortality is probably spatially limited to butterflies living in close proximity to roads.