Enhancing word signing in hearing students with reading disorders using computer-based learning trials.

Multiple-baseline-across-word-sets designs were used to determine whether a computer-based intervention would enhance accurate word signing with four participants. Each participant was a hearing college student with reading disorders. Learning trials included 3 s to observe printed words on the screen and a video model performing the sign twice (i.e., simultaneous prompting), 3 s to make the sign, 3 s to observe the same clip, and 3 s to make the sign again. For each participant and word set, no words were accurately signed during baseline. After the intervention, all four participants increased their accurate word signing across all three word sets, providing 12 demonstrations of experimental control. For each participant, accurate word signing was maintained. Application of efficient, technology-based, simultaneous prompting interventions for enhancing American Sign Language learning and future research designed to investigate causal mechanisms and optimize intervention effects are discussed.

Evaluating and comparing three variations of cover, copy, and compare on multiplication fact fluency.

A longitudinal randomized design was used with a sample of 57 third-grade students to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of three variations of cover, copy, and compare (CCC; traditional CCC, CCC-answer only, and CCC-paired responding) on multiplication fluency in third-grade students. Traditional CCC requires students to write the problem and answer as a response, CCC-answer only requires students only to write the answer, and CCC-paired responding requires students to write the answer only, then verbally state the problem and answer twice. The interventions occurred for 4 min per day, 5 days per week, across 11 calendar weeks (minus 1 week during a school break). Digits correct per minute (DCPM) level and trend data were significantly higher for each of the CCC variations when compared to control probes, with a posttest unstandardized effect of 7.22 [5.39, 9.10] DCPM. However, there were no significant differences in learning across the three CCC variations. Overall, these results provide additional evidence that all three forms of CCC can enhance math fact fluency and suggest that educators could choose which version to apply based on idiosyncratic or contextual factors. The discussion focuses on future theoretical research designed to investigate these findings and the advantages of studies that evaluate multiple interventions and compare their effectiveness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Evaluating the effects of the color wheel system on a teacher's repeated directions.

Students are less likely to hear and understand teacher-delivered directions or instructions when they are attending to other activities (e.g., a classmate, a previously assigned task). A classroom management system known as the Color Wheel System includes rules and transition procedures designed to increase the probability that students stop their current activities and attend to teachers as they deliver directions or instructions for the next activity. A withdrawal design was used to evaluate the effects of the Color Wheel System on a teacher's repeated directions in a first-grade general-education classroom. Results showed large and immediate decreases in teacher repeated directions both times the Color Wheel System was applied and an immediate increase when it was withdrawn. Discussion focuses on limitations and directions for future longitudinal research evaluating the effects of the Color Wheel System on uninterrupted teaching and learning time, classroom climates, student-teacher relationships, and compliance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Using a Tootling intervention to sequentially enhance and maintain at-risk elementary students' performance of multiple social skills.

The present study was designed to extend research on supplementing social skills training (SST) with a Tootling intervention to enhance student performance of social skills in authentic social contexts. The Tootling intervention included an interdependent group contingency with randomly selected criteria, which involved the after-school class receiving rewards contingent upon students reporting classmates' performance of prosocial behaviors as they participated in a typical school activity. First, reinforcement was delivered contingent upon peer reports of classmates' giving compliments. In subsequent phases, peer reports of classmates providing encouragement and saying thank you were added to the contingency, but each day students did not know which of these behaviors was selected as the criterion for reinforcement. Results from our multiple baseline across behaviors design provided three demonstrations of a treatment effect. When peer reports of each social skill were added to the contingency, the targeted social behavior increased. Discussion focuses on supplementing SST with Tootling interventions to enhance student performance of prosocial behaviors outside the SST context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of unfamiliar diverse names on elementary students' passage comprehension.

Elementary school multicultural reading curricula include characters with diverse proper names, which are often unfamiliar and differ phonetically from students' native language. These names could impact reading outcomes by increasing students' cognitive load and/or creating cognitive disfluency. In Study 1, students in grades 1 through 2 read a standard passage including common names and a matched passage including unfamiliar names of Russian origin. A paired samples t test indicated unfamiliar diverse names in grade-level passages significantly reduced students' reading comprehension. Study 2 was designed to determine if preteaching diverse names would mitigate their adverse effects on reading comprehension. Results indicated second-grade students who received preteaching comprehended significantly more of the passage than those who did not receive preteaching. Discussion focuses on the need for research clarifying the relationship between multicultural learning materials and academic outcomes and validating efficient methods for familiarizing students with difficult, phonetically unfamiliar words. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Classroom Management in Self-Contained Classrooms for Children with Autism: Extending Research on the Color Wheel System.

The color wheel is an evidence-based classroom management system that has been used to decrease inappropriate behaviors and increase on-task behaviors in general education elementary classrooms but not in classrooms for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A multiple-baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of the color wheel system (CWS) on disruptive behaviors (being out of seat for one classroom, inappropriate vocalizations for two classrooms) in three self-contained elementary classrooms for students with ASD. Partial-interval time sampling was used to record class-wide disruptive behaviors. Visual analysis of a time-series graph suggests that the CWS decreased disruptive behaviors across all three classrooms. Discussion focuses on limitations of the study and directions for researchers interested in modifying, applying, and evaluating the effects of the CWS in settings for children with ASD.

Evaluating a computer flash-card sight-word recognition intervention with self-determined response intervals in elementary students with intellectual disability.

A concurrent multiple-baseline across-tasks design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a computer flash-card sight-word recognition intervention with elementary-school students with intellectual disability. This intervention allowed the participants to self-determine each response interval and resulted in both participants acquiring previously unknown words across all word sets. Discussion focuses on the need to evaluate and compare computer flash-card sight-word recognition interventions with fixed and self-determined response intervals across students and dependent variables, including rates of inappropriate behavior and self-determination in students with intellectual disability. (PsycINFO Database Record

Cumulative Instructional Time and Relative Effectiveness Conclusions: Extending Research on Response Intervals, Learning, and Measurement Scale.

Adapted alternating treatments designs were used to evaluate three computer-based flashcard reading interventions (1-s, 3-s, or 5-s response intervals) across two students with disabilities. When learning was plotted with cumulative instructional sessions on the horizontal axis, the session-series graphs suggest that the interventions were similarly effective. When the same data were plotted as a function of cumulative instructional seconds, time-series graphs suggest that the 1-s intervention caused the most rapid learning for one student. Discussion focuses on applied implications of comparative effectiveness studies and why measures of cumulative instructional time are needed to identify the most effective intervention(s).Comparative effectiveness studies may not identify the intervention which causes the most rapid learning.Session-series repeated measures are not the same as time-series repeated measures.Measuring the time students spend in each intervention (i.e., cumulative instructional seconds) allows practitioners to identify interventions that enhance learning most rapidly.Student time spent working under interventions is critical for drawing applied conclusions.

Preventing Disruptive Behavior via Classroom Management: Validating the Color Wheel System in Kindergarten Classrooms.

Evidence suggests that installing a classroom management system known as the Color Wheel reduced inappropriate behaviors and increased on-task behavior in second- and fourth-grade classrooms; however, no systematic studies of the Color Wheel had been disseminated targeting pre-school or kindergarten participants. To enhance our understanding of the Color Wheel System (CWS) as a prevention system, a multiple-baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of the Color Wheel on inappropriate vocalizations (IVs) in three general education kindergarten classrooms. Partial-interval time-sampling was used to record classwide IVs, which were operationally defined as any comment or vocal noise that was not solicited by the teacher. Time series graphs and effect size calculations suggest that the CWS caused immediate, large, and sustained decreases in IVs across the three classrooms. Teacher acceptability and interview data also supported the CWS. Implications related to prevention are discussed and directions for future research are provided.

Measurement scale influences in the evaluation of sight-word reading interventions.

Working with elementary students with disabilities, we used alternating treatment designs to evaluate and compare the effects of 2 computer-based flash card sight-word reading interventions, 1 with 1-s response intervals and another with 5-s response intervals. In Study 1, we held instructional time constant, applying both interventions for 3 min. Although students completed 6 learning trials per word during each 1-s session and 2 trials per word during each 5-s session, results showed similar acquisition rates for 1-s and 5-s words. During Study 2, we held learning trials constant (3 per word) and allowed instructional time to vary. When we measured learning using cumulative instructional sessions, the interventions appeared to cause similar increases in acquisition rates. When the same learning data were measured and plotted using cumulative instructional seconds, all participants showed greater learning rates under the 1-s intervention. Discussion focuses on how measurement scales can influence comparative effectiveness studies.

Learning rates and known-to-unknown flash-card ratios: comparing effectiveness while holding instructional time constant.

Using alternating treatments designs, we compared learning rates across 2 computer-based flash-card interventions (3 min each): a traditional drill intervention with 15 unknown words and an interspersal intervention with 12 known words and 3 unknown words. Each student acquired more words under the traditional drill intervention. Discussion focuses on the need to account for instructional time when learning procedures are evaluated and compared.

Using a taped intervention to improve kindergarten students' number identification.

A multiple baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of a taped numbers (TN) intervention on the number-identification accuracy of 4 kindergarten students. During TN, students attempted to name the numbers 0 through 9 on randomized lists before each number was provided via a tape player 2 s later. All 4 students showed immediate increases and reached 100% in number-identification accuracy. One student reached 100% accuracy after TN was supplemented with performance feedback, reinforcement, and overcorrection.

Using taped-problems and rewards to increase addition-fact fluency in a first grade general education classroom.

We used a multiple baseline design across math facts to evaluate classwide use of a taped problem (TP) intervention on first graders' digits correct per minute in a general education classroom. During TP, students attempted to respond to each math fact before they heard the answer on an audiotape. As problems were repeated, response intervals were varied and individual and group feedback and rewards were provided contingent upon improved performance. Across all 3 sets of problems, digits correct per minute increased following the use of TP. We discuss the efficacy of TP as an instructional (as opposed to remedial) procedure, practical implications for teachers, and areas for future research.

An investigation of the partial-assignment completion effect on students' assignment choice behavior.

This study was designed to investigate the partial assignment completion effect. Seventh-grade students were given a math assignment. After working for 5 min, they were interrupted and their partially completed assignments were collected. About 20 min later, students were given their partially completed assignment and a new, control assignment that contained the same number of equivalent problems that were incomplete on their partially completed assignment. Students were told that they would have to complete an assignment but could choose which assignment they completed. Significantly more students chose their partially completed assignment. Theoretical and applied implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Increasing on-task behavior in every student in a second-grade classroom during transitions: validating the Color Wheel system.

A single-case (B-C-B-C) experimental design was used to evaluate the effects of the Color Wheel classroom management system (CWS) on on-task (OT) behavior in an intact, general-education, 2nd-grade classroom during transitions. The CWS included three sets of rules, posted cues to indicate the rules students are expected to be following at that time, and transition procedures for altering activities and rules. Class-wide data analysis showed large, immediate, and sustained increases in OT behavior when the CWS was applied, with OT behavior returning to baseline levels when typical classroom management (TCM) procedures were reinstated. Each student's average phase data also showed increases in OT behavior when the CWS was applied and re-applied, and showed reductions when the CWS was withdrawn. Discussion focuses on evaluating the internal, external, and contextual validity of class-wide remediation and prevention procedures.