The impact of maternal factors on mortality rates among children under the age of five years in a rural Ugandan population between 2002 and 2012.

AIM: Accurately estimating child mortality in rural communities in Africa with poor vital registration is a challenge. We aimed to estimate mortality rates and risk factors for children under five years old in rural Uganda. METHODS: Age-specific mortality rates were estimated using the synthetic cohort life-table technique for 10 118 children under the age of five years, between 2002 and 2012. Calendar year-specific hazard rates were calculated using five-year moving averages, and risk factors were explored by Cox regression. RESULTS: The mortality rate was 92 per 1000 newborn infants from birth to five years, based on a total of 256 deaths. It was 40 for boys and 23 for girls in the neonatal period and 68 for boys and 42 for girls up to the age of one year. A substantial decline in mortality from 2002 to 2012 was observed between the ages of 28 days and 11 months. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that mortality increased with decreasing child age, home delivery, human immuno-deficiency virus in the child, a birth interval of less than one year, having an unmarried mother and a maternal parity of more than four. CONCLUSION: Under-five mortality rates in rural Uganda are driven by maternal factors.

Adverse pregnancy outcomes in rural Uganda (1996-2013): trends and associated factors from serial cross sectional surveys.

OBJECTIVE: Community based evidence on pregnancy outcomes in rural Africa is lacking yet it is needed to guide maternal and child health interventions. We estimated and compared adverse pregnancy outcomes and associated factors in rural south-western Uganda using two survey methods. METHODS: Within a general population cohort, between 1996 and 2013, women aged 15-49 years were interviewed on their pregnancy outcome in the past 12 months (method 1). During 2012-13, women in the same cohort were interviewed on their lifetime experience of pregnancy outcomes (method 2). Adverse pregnancy outcome was defined as abortions or stillbirths. We used random effects logistic regression for method 1 and negative binomial regression with robust clustered standard errors for method 2 to explore factors associated with adverse outcome. RESULTS: One third of women reported an adverse pregnancy outcome; 10.8% (abortion = 8.4%, stillbirth = 2.4%) by method 1 and 8.5% (abortion = 7.2%, stillbirth = 1.3%) by method 2. Abortion rates were similar (10.8 vs 10.5) per 1000 women and stillbirth rates differed (26.2 vs 13.8) per 1000 births by methods 1 and 2 respectively. Abortion risk increased with age of mother, non-attendance of antenatal care and proximity to the road. Lifetime stillbirth risk increased with age. Abortion and stillbirth risk reduced with increasing parity. DISCUSSION: Both methods had a high level of agreement in estimating abortion rate but were markedly below national estimates. Stillbirth rate estimated by method 1 was double that estimated by method 2 but method 1 estimate was more consistent with the national estimates. CONCLUSION: Strategies to improve prospective community level data collection to reduce reporting biases are needed to guide maternal health interventions.

Policy measures and the survival of foster infants in Stockholm 1878-1925.

BACKGROUND: At the end of the 19th century, infant mortality was high in urban and rural areas in Sweden. In Stockholm, the mortality rate was particularly high among foster children. This study addresses the importance for health of targeted public policies and their local implementation in the reduction of excess mortality among foster children in Stockholm at the turn of the 19th century. In response to public concern, a law was passed in 1902 on inspections of foster homes. Stockholm city employed a handful of inspectors who visited foster homes and advised parents on child care and feeding. METHODS: Analysis of historical records from the City of Stockholm was combined with epidemiological analysis of mortality rates and hazard ratios on individual-level data for 112, 746 children aged <1 year residing in one part of Stockholm between 1878 and 1925. Hazard ratios of mortality were calculated using Cox' regression analysis. RESULTS: Mortality rates of foster infants exceeded 300/1000 before 1903. Ten years later the mortality rates among foster children had declined and were similar to other children born in and out of wedlock. Historical accounts and epidemiological analysis of individual-level data over a longer time period showed similar results. CONCLUSIONS: Targeted policy measures to foster children may have potentiated the positive health effects of other universal policies, such as improved living conditions, clean water and sanitation for the whole population in the city, contributing to an equalization of mortality rates between different groups.

The effect of childhood stunting and wasting on adolescent cardiovascular diseases risk and educational achievement in rural Uganda: a retrospective cohort study.

Background: Little is known about the long-term effects of early childhood undernutrition on adolescent cardiovascular disease risk and educational performance in low-income countries. We examined this in a rural Ugandan population. Objective: To investigate if stunting or wasting among children aged 2-5 years is associated with cardiovascular disease risk or educational achievement during adolescence. Methods: We conducted analyses using data from a cohort of children followed from early childhood to adolescence. Weight and height were measured in 1999-2000 when the children were 2-5 years of age and repeated in 2004/2005 and 2011. We compared cardiovascular disease risk parameters (mean blood pressure, lipids, HbA1c) and schooling years achieved in 2011 among 1054 adolescents categorised into four groups: those who experienced stunting or wasting throughout follow-up; those who recovered from stunting or wasting; those who were normal but later became stunted or wasted; and those who never experienced stunting or wasting from childhood up to adolescence. We controlled for possible confounding using multiple generalised linear regression models along with Generalised Estimating Equations to account for clustering of children within households. Results: Wasting was negatively associated with systolic blood pressure (-7.90 95%CI [-14.52,-1.28], p = 0.02) and diastolic blood pressure (-3.92, 95%CI [-7.42, -0.38], p = 0.03). Stunting had borderline negative association with systolic blood pressure (-2.90, 95%CI [-6.41, 0.61] p = 0.10). Recovery from wasting was positively associated with diastolic blood pressure (1.93, 95%CI [0.11, 3.74] p = 0.04). Stunting or wasting was associated with fewer schooling years. Conclusion: Recovery from wasting rather than just an episode in early childhood is associated with a rise in blood pressure while educational achievement is compromised regardless of whether recovery from undernutrition happens. These findings are relevant to children exposed to undernutrition in low-income settings.

Feasibility of using smartphones by village health workers for pregnancy registration and effectiveness of mobile phone text messages on reduction of homebirths in rural Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: Homebirths are common in low and middle income countries and are associated with poor child survival. We assessed the feasibility of using smartphones by village health workers for pregnancy registration and the effectiveness of health text messages (SMS) sent to pregnant women through village health workers in reducing homebirths in rural Uganda. METHODS: A non-randomised intervention study was undertaken in 26 villages. In the intervention arm, village health workers registered pregnant women (n = 262) in 13 villages using a smartphone app (doForm) and paper forms and gestation age-timed SMS were sent through village health workers to the pregnant women. In 13 control villages, (n = 263) pregnant women were registered on paper forms only and no SMS was sent. The main outcome was place of birth measured through a self-report. Logistic regression with generalised estimating equations was used to explore the effect of the intervention. RESULTS: Comparing 795 corresponding data fields on phone and paper revealed that numeric variable fields were 86%-95% similar while text fields were 38%-48% similar. Of the 525 pregnant women followed, 83 (15.8%) delivered at home. In the adjusted analysis, the intervention was associated with lower odds of homebirths [AOR = 0.38, 95%CI (0.15-0.97)]. Muslim religion [AOR = 4.0, 95%CI (1.72-9.34)], primary or no maternal education [AOR = 2.51, 95%CI (1.00-6.35)] and health facility distance ≥ 2 km [AOR = 2.26, 95%CI (0.95-5.40)] were independently associated with homebirths. CONCLUSION: Village health workers can register pregnant women at home using phones and relay gestation age specific SMS to them to effectively reduce homebirths.

Introduction of standard measles vaccination in an urban African community in 1979 and overall child survival: a reanalysis of data from a cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of the first introduction of measles vaccine (MV) in Guinea-Bissau in 1979. SETTING: Urban community study of the anthropometric status of all children under 6 years of age. PARTICIPANTS: The study cohort included 1451 children in December 1978; 82% took part in the anthropometric survey. The cohort was followed for 2 years. INTERVENTION: In December 1979, the children were re-examined anthropometrically. The participating children, aged 6 months to 6 years, were offered MV if they did not have a history of measles infection. There were no routine vaccinations in 1979-1980. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Age-adjusted mortality rate ratios (MRRs) for measles vaccinated and not vaccinated children; changes in nutritional status. RESULTS: The nutritional status deteriorated significantly from 1978 to 1979. Nonetheless, children who received MV at the December 1979 examination had significantly lower mortality in the following year (1980) compared with the children who had been present in the December 1978 examination but were not measles vaccinated. Among children still living in the community in December 1979, measles-vaccinated children aged 6-71 months had a mortality rate of 18/1000 person-years during the following year compared with 51/1000 person-years for absent children who were not measles vaccinated (MRR=0.30 (0.12-0.73)). The effect of MV was not explained by prevention of measles infection as the unvaccinated children did not die of measles infection. CONCLUSIONS: MV may have beneficial non-specific effects on child survival not related to the prevention of measles infection.

Equitable child health interventions: the impact of improved water and sanitation on inequalities in child mortality in Stockholm, 1878 to 1925.

Today, many of the 10 million childhood deaths each year are caused by diseases of poverty--diarrhea and pneumonia, for example, which were previously major causes of childhood death in many European countries. Specific analyses of the historical decline of child mortality may shed light on the potential equity impact of interventions to reduce child mortality. In our study of the impact of improved water and sanitation in Stockholm from 1878 to 1925, we examined the decline in overall and diarrhea mortality among children, both in general and by socioeconomic group. We report a decline in overall mortality and of diarrhea mortality and a leveling out of socioeconomic differences in child mortality due to diarrheal diseases, but not of overall mortality. The contribution of general and targeted policies is discussed.