Protein Engineering of Vip3A in a Selected Bacillus thuringiensis Host for Consistent High Protein Production.

This study aimed to obtain reliable high Vip3A production from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) by modifying Vip3A to acquire higher thermostability in a suitable host. Bt117 is a great host for Vip3A production due to protein production consistency, low protease activity in culture media, and large amounts of mostly full-length protein, but it produces Vip3A with lower thermostability (Vip3Aa35). The C-terminal region of Bt117 Vip3A was replaced with that of a Vip3A with higher thermostability (Vip3Aa64 from Bt294) to generate the recombinant Bt117-Vip3Aa64-C. Like the parental strain Bt117, this strain expressed mostly full-length protein and exhibited low protease activity and similar protein expression profiles in culture media but retained greater larvicidal activity upon 37 °C storage like Bt294 Vip3Aa64. Importantly, every culture batch of Bt117-Vip3Aa64-C yielded over 200 mg/l Vip3A, which is a notable improvement over the original Vip3Aa64-producing strain Bt294 where 45% of culture batches failed to produce Vip3A at the same level. Successfully, we combined the superior qualities of two Bt strains, Bt294, which produces thermostable Vip3A but at low and inconsistent levels, and Bt117, which produces Vip3A with low thermostability but at consistently high levels. Protein engineering of Vip3A in Bt117 ultimately yielded an improved strain producing a thermostable Vip3A with reliably high protein production.

Modulation of Cas9 level for efficient CRISPR-Cas9-mediated chromosomal and plasmid gene deletion in Bacillus thuringiensis.

OBJECTIVES: To set up an efficient gene editing system in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) using CRISPR-Cas9 by demonstrating deletion of chromosomal and plasmid genes. RESULTS: CRISPR-Cas9 from Streptococcus pyogenes was found to function in Bt cells, resulting in DNA cleavage that is lethal to the cells. The system was assessed for its ability to mediate gene editing by knock-out of the protease genes nprA (neutral protease A) and aprA (alkaline protease A). Gene editing was not detected when the Bacillus-derived pBCX was used to carry CRISPR-Cas9 elements and a DNA repair template. When the Cas9 promoter was replaced with the sporulation-specific promoter cyt2A, a Bt ∆nprA clone was obtained, but this plasmid construct did not give reproducible results. Bt ∆nprA ∆aprA and Bt ∆aprA deletion mutants were finally generated when the Lactobacillus plantarum-derived plasmid pLPPR9 was used, likely due to its lower copy number reducing Cas9 toxicity. Only three to four clones each needed to be screened to identify the desired gene-modified mutants. Conversely, efficient editing of the plasmid vip3A gene required the use of pBCX and longer homology sequences for the repair template. CONCLUSIONS: Capitalizing on the differential impact of plasmid copy number and homology arm length, we devised distinct yet simple and efficient approaches to chromosomal and plasmid gene deletion for Bt that condense the screening process, minimize screening, and facilitate multiple consecutive gene editing steps.

Tyrosine-776 of Vip3Aa64 from Bacillus thuringiensis is Important for Retained Larvicidal Activity During High-Temperature Storage.

Vip3Aa (vegetative insecticidal protein) secreted by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is highly toxic to lepidopteran insects. The Bt isolate M190 produces Vip3Aa35 at high concentrations, and Vip3Aa35 was found to be very effective against Spodoptera exigua. Unfortunately, the use of Vip3Aa35 in pest control is limited by its short shelf life when stored at high temperatures, retaining activity for only 1 month at 37 °C. To find a more stable alternative, we screened 500 isolates of Bt collected from various locations in Thailand and discovered Bt isolate 294 which produced large amounts of Vip3Aa64 that exhibited high toxicity against S. exigua but could be stored at 37 °C for up to 3 months. Vip3Aa35 and Vip3Aa64 have only nine amino acid differences between them, with six of those residues being located at the C terminus. Vip3Aa35 and Vip3Aa64 chimeras revealed that the C-terminal sequence is important for the retained larvicidal activity observed with Vip3Aa64. Various single amino acid substitutions were created to identify the key amino acids responsible for this stability. A single residue, Tyr776, was found to be solely responsible, with the Vip3Aa35:N776Y acquiring thermostability similar to Vip3Aa64 while the Vip3Aa64:Y776N exhibited Vip3Aa35-like thermostability.

Roles of the A and C sites in the manganese-specific activation of MntR.

The manganese transport regulator (MntR) represses the expression of genes involved in manganese uptake in Bacillus subtilis. It selectively responds to Mn(2+) and Cd(2+) over other divalent metal cations, including Fe(2+), Co(2+), and Zn(2+). Previous work has shown that MntR forms binuclear complexes with Mn(2+) or Cd(2+) at two binding sites, labeled A and C, that are separated by 4.4 Å. Zinc activates MntR poorly and binds only to the A site, forming a mononuclear complex. The difference in metal binding stoichiometry suggested a mechanism for selectivity in MntR. Larger metal cations are strongly activating because they can form the binuclear complex, while smaller metal ions cannot bind with the geometry needed to fully occupy both metal binding sites. To investigate this hypothesis, structures of MntR in complex with two other noncognate metal ions, Fe(2+) and Co(2+), have been determined. Each metal forms a mononuclear complex with MntR with the metal ion bound in the A site, supporting the conclusions drawn from the Zn(2+) complex. Additionally, we investigated two site-specific mutants of MntR, E11K and H77A, that contain substitutions of metal binding residues in the A site. While metal binding in each mutant is significantly altered relative to that of wild-type MntR, both mutants retain activity and selectivity for Mn(2+) in vitro and in vivo. That observation, coupled with previous studies, suggests that the A and C sites both contribute to the selectivity of MntR.

Expression of mosquito-larvicidal toxin genes under the control of a native promoter in Enterobacter amnigenus An11.

Enterobacter amnigenus An11, that can colonize the gut of mosquito larva, is an alternative toxin-producing host to be used as a mosquito control since it is able to float in the feeding zone of mosquito larvae. To produce mosquito-larvicidal toxins in this bacterium, a native promoter has been identified from its genomic DNA. The promoter exhibited consensus sequences for -35 and -10 regions of bacterial promoters and constitutively drove the expression of gfp. This promoter was inserted into recombinant plasmids upstream of promoter-free cyt2Aa2 from Bacillus thuringiensis and mtx2 from Bacillus sphaericus. Results demonstrated that Cyt2Aa2 and Mtx2 are constitutively produced without induction. The recombinant E. amnigenus showed toxicity against mosquito larvae, demonstrating a potential to be applied in a mosquito control program.

Vegetative insecticidal protein (Vip3A) production by Bacillus thuringiensis Bt294 and its efficacy against Lepidopteran pests (Spodoptera exigua).

A vegetative insecticidal protein, Vip3A, is highly active against lepidopteran pests, which are the most important pests in most tropical countries. An important aspect of the successful commercial production of this bacterial insecticide is the development of bacterial culture media that maximize the titres of this protein and cost reduction. This study aimed to investigate and optimize Vip3A production by Bacillus thuringiensis Bt294 using statistical methods and 3-step sequential approaches. The experimental design showed that the production of Vip3A was maximized to 300 mg/L when the bacterium was cultivated in medium composed of 5.05 g/L glycerol, 49.17 g/L soytone, 30.05 g/L casein hydrolysate, 1.99 g/L CaCl2.2H2O, 7.5 mg/L CuSO4, 15 mg/L MnSO4.H2O, 9.4 g/L K2HPO4, 2.2 g/L KH2PO4, 0.2 g/L MgSO4.7H2O, 5 g/L yeast extract, 2.5 mg/L NiCl2.6H2O and 3 mL/L vitamin solution. B. thuringiensis Bt294 Vip3A toxin was highly toxic to Spodoptera exigua with LC50 values of 187.1 ng/cm2 at 7 days. This result demonstrated that a high titre of Vip3A produced by B. thuringiensis Bt294 will be useful as a biological control agent. This optimization will allow production to be scaled up for commercial production in the future.

Proteomic Analysis and Promoter Modification of Bacillus thuringiensis to Improve Insecticidal Vip3A Protein Production.

Insecticidal protein Vip3A secreted from B. thuringiensis is a potential biocontrol agent for control of lepidopteran pests. Under laboratory conditions, high albeit variable Vip3A production from the local isolate Bt294 was only obtained from a much enriched TB culture medium. Proteomic analysis and strain improvement were therefore performed to improve Vip3A production. Studies indicated that the buffer capacity, carbon source, and nitrogen source are critical to efficiently produce Vip3A. Medium with lower amounts of peptone and yeast extract (compared to TB), with an additional carbon source and phosphate buffer (LB*G medium) was found to give reasonable yields of Vip3A. Proteomic analysis revealed higher expression of proteins involved in glutamate and histidine biosynthesis in cells cultured in TB compared to LB about 58 and 33 times, respectively. Experiments confirmed that glutamate supplementation could increase Vip3A production. In addition, promoter substitution with that of cry3A increased Vip3A yields by about 20-30%. Overall, very high yields of Vip3A could be obtained by culturing Bt294 (Pcry3A-vip3Aa64) in LB*G medium with glutamate supplementation.

Oxidation of a single active site suffices for the functional inactivation of the dimeric Bacillus subtilis OhrR repressor in vitro.

Bacillus subtilis OhrR is a dimeric repressor that senses organic peroxides and regulates the expression of the OhrA peroxiredoxin. Derepression results from oxidation of an active site cysteine which ultimately results in formation of a mixed disulfide with a low molecular weight thiol, a cyclic sulfenamide, or overoxidation to the sulfinic or sulfonic acids. We expressed a single-chain OhrR (scOhrR) in which the two monomers were connected by a short amino-acid linker. scOhrR variants containing only one active site cysteine were fully functional as repressors and still responded, albeit with reduced efficacy, to organic peroxides in vivo. Biochemical analyses indicate that oxidation at a single active site is sufficient for derepression regardless of the fate of the active site cysteine. scOhrR with only one active site cysteine in the amino-terminal domain is inactivated at rates comparable to wild-type whereas when the active site is in the carboxyl-terminal domain the protein is inactivated much more slowly. The incomplete derepression noted for single active site variants of scOhrR in vivo is consistent with the hypothesis that protein reduction regenerates active repressor and that, in the cell, oxidation of the second active site may also contribute to derepression.

Production of Lysinibacillus sphaericus Mosquitocidal Protein Mtx2 from Bacillus subtilis as a Secretory Protein.

BACKGROUND: Mtx2 is a mosquitocidal toxin produced during the vegetative growth of Lysinibacillus sphaericus. The protein shows synergism with other toxins against mosquito larvae; hence it could be used in mosquito control formulations. The protein expression system is needed for Mtx2 development as a biocontrol agent. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to set up a Bacillus subtilis system to produce Mtx2 as a secreted protein since the protein contains a putative signal peptide. METHODS: Initially, four different promoters (P43, Pspac, PxylA, and PyxiE) were compared for their strength using GFP as a reporter in B. subtilis. Subsequently, six different signal peptides (SacB, Epr, AmyE, AprE, LipA, and Vip3A) were tested in conjunction with the selected promoter and mtx2 to evaluate levels of Mtx2 secreted by B. subtilis WB800, an extracellular protease-deficient strain. RESULTS: The promoter PyxiE showed the highest GFP intensity and was selected for further study. Mtx2 was successfully produced as a secreted protein from signal peptides LipA and AmyE, and it exhibited larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti. CONCLUSION: B. subtilis was successfully developed as a host for the production of secreted Mtx2, and the protein retained its larvicidal activity. Although the Mtx2 production level still needs improvement, the constructed plasmids could be used to produce other soluble proteins.

Oxidant-dependent switching between reversible and sacrificial oxidation pathways for Bacillus subtilis OhrR.

The Bacillus subtilis OhrR protein functions as a transcriptional repressor of the inducible peroxidase, OhrA. Derepression is mediated by the organic-peroxide selective oxidation of an active site cysteine (C15). In the presence of cumene hydroperoxide (CHP), oxidation of OhrR leads to a sulphenic acid intermediate which reacts to form either a mixed-disulphide or a protein sulphenamide. These inactive forms of OhrR can be reactivated by thiol-disulphide exchange reactions allowing restoration of repression. Here, we demonstrate that linoleic acid hydroperoxide (LHP) is a potent oxidant for OhrR and even low levels lead to overoxidation of OhrR to cysteine sulphinic (and sulphonic) acid derivatives. Kinetic competition experiments indicate that further oxidation of the initial OhrR sulphenate product occurs at least 100-fold more rapidly with LHP than with CHP. Thus, depending on the oxidant, OhrR can be either reversibly oxidized or can instead function as a sacrificial regulator.

Bacillus sphaericus Mtx1 and Mtx2 toxins co-expressed in Escherichia coli are synergistic against Aedes aegypti larvae.

Mtx1 and Mtx2 are mosquitocidal toxins produced by some strains of Bacillus sphaericus during vegetative phase of growth. Mtx1 from B. sphaericus 2297 shows higher toxicity against Culex quinquefasciatus larvae than to Aedes aegypti larvae whereas Mtx2 from B. sphaericus 2297 shows lower toxicity against C. quinquefasciatus than to A. aegypti larvae. To test synergism of these toxins against A. aegypti larvae, mtx1 and mtx2 genes were cloned into a single plasmid and expressed in Escherichia coli. Cells producing both Mtx1 and Mtx2 toxins exhibited high synergistic activity against A. aegypti larvae approximately 10 times compared to cells expressing only a single toxin. Co-expression of both toxins offers an alternative to improve efficacy of recombinant bacterial insecticides. There is a high possibility to develop these toxins to be used as an environmentally friendly mosquito control agent.

Conversion of Bacillus subtilis OhrR from a 1-Cys to a 2-Cys peroxide sensor.

OhrR proteins can be divided into two groups based on their inactivation mechanism: 1-Cys (represented by Bacillus subtilis OhrR) and 2-Cys (represented by Xanthomonas campestris OhrR). A conserved cysteine residue near the amino terminus is present in both groups of proteins and is initially oxidized to the sulfenic acid. The B. subtilis 1-Cys OhrR protein is subsequently inactivated by formation of a mixed-disulfide bond with low-molecular-weight thiols or by cysteine overoxidation to sulfinic and sulfonic acids. In contrast, the X. campestris 2-Cys OhrR is inactivated when the initially oxidized cysteine sulfenate forms an intersubunit disulfide bond with a second Cys residue from the other subunit of the protein dimer. Here, we demonstrate that the 1-Cys B. subtilis OhrR can be converted into a 2-Cys OhrR by introducing another cysteine residue in either position 120 or position 124. Like the X. campestris OhrR protein, these mutants (G120C and Q124C) are inactivated by intermolecular disulfide bond formation. Analysis of oxidized 2-Cys variants both in vivo and in vitro indicates that intersubunit disulfide bond formation can occur simultaneously at both active sites in the protein dimer. Rapid formation of intersubunit disulfide bonds protects OhrR against irreversible overoxidation in the presence of strong oxidants much more efficiently than do the endogenous low-molecular-weight thiols.

Isoleucine at position 150 of Cyt2Aa toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis plays an important role during membrane binding and oligomerization.

Cyt2Aa2 is a mosquito larvicidal and cytolytic toxin produced by Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. darmstadiensis. The toxin becomes inactive when isoleucine at position 150 was replaced by alanine. To investigate the functional role of this position, Ile150 was substituted with Leu, Phe, Glu and Lys. All mutant proteins were produced at high level, solubilized in carbonate buffer and yielded protease activated product similar to those of the wild type. Intrinsic fluorescence spectra analysis suggested that these mutants retain similar folding to the wild type. However, mosquito larvicidal and hemolytic activities dramatically decreased for the I150K and were completely abolished for I150A and I150F mutants. Membrane binding and oligomerization assays demonstrated that only I150E and I150L could bind and form oligomers on lipid membrane similar to that of the wild type. Our results suggest that amino acid at position 150 plays an important role during membrane binding and oligomerization of Cyt2Aa2 toxin.

Role of cysteine at positions 67, 161 and 241 of a Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin BinB.

Binary toxin consisting of BinA and BinB from Bacillus sphaericus is toxic to mosquito larvae. BinB is responsible for specific binding to the larval gut cell membrane while BinA is crucial for toxicity. To investigate functional role of cysteine in BinB, three cysteine residues at positions 67, 161, and 241 were replaced by alanine or serine. Mutations at these positions did not affect protein production and overall structure of BinB. These cysteine residues are not involved in disulfide bond formation between BinB molecules. Mosquito-larvicidal assays revealed that C67 and C161 are essential for toxicity, whereas C241 is not. Mutations at C67 and C161 resulted in weaker BinA-BinB interaction. The loss of toxicity may be due to the reduction of interactions between BinA and BinB or BinB and its receptor. C67 and C161 could also play a part during conformational changes or internalization of the binary toxin into the target cell. [BMB reports 2010; 43(1): 23-28].

Mutational analysis of active site residues essential for sensing of organic hydroperoxides by Bacillus subtilis OhrR.

Bacillus subtilis OhrR is the prototype for the one-Cys family of organic peroxide-sensing regulatory proteins. Mutational analyses indicate that the high sensitivity of the active site cysteine (C15) to peroxidation requires three Tyr residues. Y29 and Y40 from the opposing subunit of the functional dimer hydrogen bond with the reactive Cys thiolate, and substitutions at these positions reduce or eliminate the ability of OhrR to respond to organic peroxides. Y19 is also critical for peroxide sensing, and the Ala substitution mutant (OhrR Y19A) is less susceptible to oxidation at the active site C15 in vivo. The Y19A protein also displays decreased sensitivity to peroxide-mediated oxidation in vitro. Y19 is in van der Waals contact with two residues critical for protein function, F16 and R23. The latter residue makes critical contact with the DNA backbone in the OhrR-operator complex. These results indicate that the high sensitivity of the OhrR C15 residue to oxidation requires interactions with the opposed Tyr residues. Oxidative modification of C15 likely disrupts the C15-Y29'-Y40' hydrogen bond network and thereby initiates conformational changes that reduce the ability of OhrR to bind to its operator site.

A complex thiolate switch regulates the Bacillus subtilis organic peroxide sensor OhrR.

Oxidation of protein thiolates is central to numerous redox-regulated processes. Bacillus subtilis OhrR is an organic peroxide sensor that represses expression of an inducible peroxiredoxin, OhrA. Here, we present evidence that oxidation of the sole cysteine residue in OhrR leads to a sulfenic acid-containing intermediate that retains DNA-binding activity: further reaction to generate either a mixed disulfide (S-thiolation) or a protein sulfenamide (sulfenyl-amide) derivative is essential for derepression. Protein S-thiolation protects OhrR from overoxidation and provides for a facile regeneration of active OhrR by thiol-disulfide exchange reactions. The sulfenamide can also be reduced by thiol-disulfide exchange reactions, although this process is much slower than for mixed disulfides. Recovery of oxidized OhrR from B. subtilis identifies three distinct S-thiolated species, including mixed disulfides with a novel 398-Da thiol, cysteine, and CoASH. Evidence for in vivo formation of the sulfenamide derivative is also presented.