mTOR signalling controls the formation of smooth muscle cell-derived luminal myofibroblasts during vasculitis.

The accumulation of myofibroblasts within the intimal layer of inflamed blood vessels is a potentially catastrophic complication of vasculitis, which can lead to arterial stenosis and ischaemia. In this study, we have investigated how these luminal myofibroblasts develop during Kawasaki disease (KD), a paediatric vasculitis typically involving the coronary arteries. By performing lineage tracing studies in a murine model of KD, we reveal that luminal myofibroblasts develop independently of adventitial fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and instead derive from smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Notably, the emergence of SMC-derived luminal myofibroblasts-in both mice and patients with KD, Takayasu's arteritis and Giant Cell arteritis-coincided with activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway. Moreover, SMC-specific deletion of mTOR signalling, or pharmacological inhibition, abrogated the emergence of luminal myofibroblasts. Thus, mTOR is an intrinsic and essential regulator of luminal myofibroblast formation that is activated in vasculitis patients and therapeutically tractable. These findings provide molecular insight into the pathogenesis of coronary artery stenosis and identify mTOR as a therapeutic target in vasculitis.

The developmental pathway for CD103(+)CD8+ tissue-resident memory T cells of skin.

Tissue-resident memory T cells (T(RM) cells) provide superior protection against infection in extralymphoid tissues. Here we found that CD103(+)CD8(+) T(RM) cells developed in the skin from epithelium-infiltrating precursor cells that lacked expression of the effector-cell marker KLRG1. A combination of entry into the epithelium plus local signaling by interleukin 15 (IL-15) and transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) was required for the formation of these long-lived memory cells. Notably, differentiation into T(RM) cells resulted in the progressive acquisition of a unique transcriptional profile that differed from that of circulating memory cells and other types of T cells that permanently reside in skin epithelium. We provide a comprehensive molecular framework for the local differentiation of a distinct peripheral population of memory cells that forms a first-line immunological defense system in barrier tissues.

Distinct epigenetic signatures delineate transcriptional programs during virus-specific CD8(+) T cell differentiation.

The molecular mechanisms that regulate the rapid transcriptional changes that occur during cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) proliferation and differentiation in response to infection are poorly understood. We have utilized ChIP-seq to assess histone H3 methylation dynamics within naive, effector, and memory virus-specific T cells isolated directly ex vivo after influenza A virus infection. Our results show that within naive T cells, codeposition of the permissive H3K4me3 and repressive H3K27me3 modifications is a signature of gene loci associated with gene transcription, replication, and cellular differentiation. Upon differentiation into effector and/or memory CTLs, the majority of these gene loci lose repressive H3K27me3 while retaining the permissive H3K4me3 modification. In contrast, immune-related effector gene promoters within naive T cells lacked the permissive H3K4me3 modification, with acquisition of this modification occurring upon differentiation into effector/memory CTLs. Thus, coordinate transcriptional regulation of CTL genes with related functions is achieved via distinct epigenetic mechanisms.

TNF and IL-1 Play Essential but Temporally Distinct Roles in Driving Cardiac Inflammation in a Murine Model of Kawasaki Disease.

Kawasaki disease (KD) is a leading cause of pediatric heart disease, characterized by the emergence of life-threatening coronary vasculitis. Identifying which cytokines drive KD has been a major research goal, and both TNF and IL-1 have been identified as potential candidates. Using a murine model of KD induced by the injection of the water-soluble component of Candida albicans, we therefore undertook a mechanistic study to determine how and when these two cytokines mediate cardiac inflammation. In this study, we show that TNF signaling is active in the acute phase of cardiac inflammation, which is characterized by a diffuse myocarditis that precedes the development of coronary vasculitis. Mechanistically, TNF is produced by the myeloid cells and triggers acute cardiac inflammation by stimulating both stromal and immune compartments of the heart. In contrast to this early involvement for TNF, IL-1 signaling is dispensable for the development of acute myocarditis. Critically, although mice deficient in IL-1 signaling have extensive acute inflammation following C. albicans water-soluble complex challenge, they do not develop coronary vasculitis. Thus, TNF and IL-1 appear to play temporally distinct roles in KD, with TNF being active in acute cardiac inflammation and IL-1 in the subsequent development of coronary vasculitis. These observations have important implications for understanding the progression of cardiac pathology in KD and the relative therapeutic use of targeting these cytokines.

The Selective Expansion and Targeted Accumulation of Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages Drive Cardiac Vasculitis.

The adult heart contains macrophages derived from both embryonic and adult bone marrow (BM)-derived precursors. This population diversity prompted us to explore how distinct macrophage subsets localize within the heart, and their relative contributions in cardiac disease. In this study, using the reciprocal expression of Lyve-1 and Ccr2 to distinguish macrophages with distinct origins, we show that, in the steady state, both embryonic (Lyvepos) and BM-derived (Ccr2pos) macrophages populate the major vessels of the heart in mice and humans. However, cardiac macrophage populations are markedly perturbed by inflammation. In a mouse model of Kawasaki disease, BM-derived macrophages preferentially increase during acute cardiac inflammation and selectively accumulate around major cardiac vessels. The accumulation of BM-derived macrophages coincides with the loss of their embryonic counterparts and is an initiating, essential step in the emergence of subsequent cardiac vasculitis in this experimental model. Finally, we demonstrate that the accumulation of Ccr2pos macrophages (and the development of vasculitis) occurs in close proximity to a population of Ccr2 chemokine ligand-producing epicardial cells, suggesting that the epicardium may be involved in localizing inflammation to cardiac vessels. Collectively, our findings identify the perivascular accumulation of BM-derived macrophages as pivotal in the pathogenesis of cardiac vasculitis and provide evidence about the mechanisms governing their recruitment to the heart.

Long-lived epithelial immunity by tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells in the absence of persisting local antigen presentation.

Although circulating memory T cells provide enhanced protection against pathogen challenge, they often fail to do so if infection is localized to peripheral or extralymphoid compartments. In those cases, it is T cells already resident at the site of virus challenge that offer superior immune protection. These tissue-resident memory T (T(RM)) cells are identified by their expression of the α-chain from the integrin α(E)(CD103)ß(7), and can exist in disequilibrium with the blood, remaining in the local environment long after peripheral infections subside. In this study, we demonstrate that long-lived intraepithelial CD103(+)CD8(+) T(RM) cells can be generated in the absence of in situ antigen recognition. Local inflammation in skin and mucosa alone resulted in enhanced recruitment of effector populations and their conversion to the T(RM) phenotype. The CD8(+) T(RM) cells lodged in these barrier tissues provided long-lived protection against local challenge with herpes simplex virus in skin and vagina challenge models, and were clearly superior to the circulating memory T-cell cohort. The results demonstrate that peripheral T(RM) cells can be generated and survive in the absence of local antigen presentation and provide a powerful means of achieving immune protection against peripheral infection.

Vitamin A notches up CD11b hi DC development.

Vitamin A and its metabolite retinoic acid influence various aspects of immunity. Although the capacity of vitamin A to condition intestinal CD103(+) DCs to imprint tissue-specific homing programs onto activated lymphocytes is well documented, it is unclear whether vitamin A also regulates DC populations in other tissues. A study published in this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, Beijer et al. [Eur. J. Immunol. 2013. 43: 1608-1616] now demonstrates that vitamin A exerts profound effects on the subset composition of splenic DCs. By resolving that splenic ESAM(hi) CD11b(hi) DCs are preferentially responsive to regulation by vitamin A, these novel insights not only further support the notion that ESAM expression marks two distinct lineages of splenic CD11b(hi) DCs, but also provide an important extension to our understanding of how vitamin A influences the immune system.

Reactive murine lymph nodes uniquely permit parenchymal access for T cells that enter via the afferent lymphatics.

Whereas naïve T cells access the lymph nodes predominantly via the high endothelial venules, their effector counterparts can also enter via the afferent lymphatics. It is unclear if such cells are confined to the lymphatic spaces during their transit through the lymph node or whether they can access the lymphocyte- and dendritic cell-rich parenchyma with its potentially stimulatory environment. We used a flank HSV inoculation model that featured neuronal-mediated movement of virus to distinct areas of skin to study the lymphatic-mediated transit of activated T cells between different skin-draining lymph nodes. These experiments showed that activated T cells released from the brachial lymph node, draining the primary site of inoculation, entered the downstream axillary lymph node. These activated T cells accessed the subcapsular areas of the axillary lymph node via lymphatic vessels exiting the upstream brachial node regardless of whether the former drained skin that was associated with active infection. However, T cells remained within the sinusoidal network of the axillary lymph node unless it was directly associated with peripheral infection. Thus, activated T cells that enter a given lymph node using the afferent lymphatics do not have automatic access to the parenchyma unless it is a reactive node involved with peripheral inflammation or infection.

Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Inhibition Prevents Coronary Artery Remodeling in a Murine Model of Kawasaki Disease.

OBJECTIVE: Remodeling of the coronary arteries is a common feature in severe cases of Kawasaki disease (KD). This pathology is driven by the dysregulated proliferation of vascular fibroblasts, which can lead to coronary artery aneurysms, stenosis, and myocardial ischemia. We undertook this study to investigate whether inhibiting fibroblast proliferation might be an effective therapeutic strategy to prevent coronary artery remodeling in KD. METHOD: We used a murine model of KD (induced by the injection of the Candida albicans water-soluble complex [CAWS]) and analyzed patient samples to evaluate potential antifibrotic therapies for KD. RESULTS: We identified the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway as a potential therapeutic target in KD. The mTOR inhibitor rapamycin potently inhibited cardiac fibroblast proliferation in vitro, and vascular fibroblasts up-regulated mTOR kinase signaling in vivo in the CAWS mouse model of KD. We evaluated the in vivo efficacy of mTOR inhibition and found that the therapeutic administration of rapamycin reduced vascular fibrosis and intimal hyperplasia of the coronary arteries in CAWS-injected mice. Furthermore, the analysis of cardiac tissue from KD fatalities revealed that vascular fibroblasts localizing with inflamed coronary arteries up-regulate mTOR signaling, confirming that the mTOR pathway is active in human KD. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that mTOR signaling contributes to coronary artery remodeling in KD, and that targeting this pathway offers a potential therapeutic strategy to prevent or restrict this pathology in high-risk KD patients.

Intimal macrophages develop from circulating monocytes during vasculitis.

Objective: Vasculitis is characterised by inflammation of the blood vessels. While all layers of the vessel can be affected, inflammation within the intimal layer can trigger thrombosis and arterial occlusion and is therefore of particular clinical concern. Given this pathological role, we have examined how intimal inflammation develops by exploring which (and how) macrophages come to populate this normally immune-privileged site during vasculitis. Methods: We have addressed this question for Kawasaki disease (KD), which is a type of vasculitis in children that typically involves the coronary arteries. We used confocal microscopy and flow cytometry to characterise the macrophages that populate the coronary artery intima in KD patient samples and in a mouse model of KD, and furthermore, have applied an adoptive transfer system to trace how these intimal macrophages develop. Results: In KD patients, intimal hyperplasia coincided with marked macrophage infiltration of the coronary artery intima. Phenotypic analysis revealed that these 'intimal macrophages' did not express markers of resident cardiac macrophages, such as Lyve-1, and instead, were uniformly positive for the chemokine receptor Ccr2, suggesting a monocytic lineage. In support of this origin, we show that circulating monocytes directly invade the intima via transluminal migration during established disease, coinciding with the activation of endothelial cells lining the coronary arteries. Conclusions: During KD, intimal macrophages develop from circulating monocytes that infiltrate the inflamed coronary artery intima by transluminal migration.

Rapid recruitment and activation of CD8+ T cells after herpes simplex virus type 1 skin infection.

After localized infection, naive antigen-specific T cells must localize to those lymph nodes (LNs) draining the site of infection before engaging antigen-bearing dendritic cells. Given that naive precursors are initially distributed randomly throughout the secondary lymphoid compartment, it is unclear how long it takes most antigen-specific precursors to mobilize to draining LNs and become recruited into the primary T cell response. Here, we have examined the kinetics of these events, measuring the period over which naive precursors are recruited into the primary T cell response after cutaneous infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). We show that despite prolonged MHC class-I-restricted antigen presentation, most naive HSV-specific precursors were recruited from the circulation in the first 4 days after inoculation. Furthermore, this prolonged presentation was also not essential for memory development, as truncating the period of antigen presentation to around 4 days did not affect the level of contraction, or long-term stability of the HSV-specific CD8(+) memory T cell pool. Thus, despite initially being dispersed throughout the entire circulation, the recruitment of naive precursors is achieved quite quickly, even when priming is restricted to a small number of draining LNs.

GM-CSF primes cardiac inflammation in a mouse model of Kawasaki disease.

Kawasaki disease (KD) is the leading cause of pediatric heart disease in developed countries. KD patients develop cardiac inflammation, characterized by an early infiltrate of neutrophils and monocytes that precipitates coronary arteritis. Although the early inflammatory processes are linked to cardiac pathology, the factors that regulate cardiac inflammation and immune cell recruitment to the heart remain obscure. In this study, using a mouse model of KD (induced by a cell wall Candida albicans water-soluble fraction [CAWS]), we identify an essential role for granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in orchestrating these events. GM-CSF is rapidly produced by cardiac fibroblasts after CAWS challenge, precipitating cardiac inflammation. Mechanistically, GM-CSF acts upon the local macrophage compartment, driving the expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, whereas therapeutically, GM-CSF blockade markedly reduces cardiac disease. Our findings describe a novel role for GM-CSF as an essential initiating cytokine in cardiac inflammation and implicate GM-CSF as a potential target for therapeutic intervention in KD.

T Cell Help Amplifies Innate Signals in CD8(+) DCs for Optimal CD8(+) T Cell Priming.

DCs often require stimulation from CD4(+) T cells to propagate CD8(+) T cell responses, but precisely how T cell help optimizes the priming capacity of DCs and why this appears to differ between varying types of CD8(+) T cell immunity remains unclear. We show that CD8(+) T cell priming upon HSV-1 skin infection depended on DCs receiving stimulation from both IFN-α/ß and CD4(+) T cells to provide IL-15. This was not an additive effect but resulted from CD4(+) T cells amplifying DC production of IL-15 in response to IFN-α/ß. We also observed that increased innate stimulation reversed the helper dependence of CD8(+) T cell priming and that the innate stimulus, rather than the CD4(+) T cells themselves, determined how "help'" was integrated into the priming response by DCs. These findings identify T cell help as a flexible means to amplify varying suboptimal innate signals in DCs.

Type I IFN suppresses Cxcr2 driven neutrophil recruitment into the sensory ganglia during viral infection.

Infection induces the expression of inflammatory chemokines that recruit immune cells to the site of inflammation. Whereas tissues such as the intestine and skin express unique chemokines during homeostasis, whether different tissues express distinct chemokine profiles during inflammation remains unclear. With this in mind, we performed a comprehensive screen of the chemokines expressed by two tissues (skin and sensory ganglia) infected with a common viral pathogen (herpes simplex virus type 1). After infection, the skin and ganglia showed marked differences in their expression of the family of Cxcr2 chemokine ligands. Specifically, Cxcl1/2/3, which in turn controlled neutrophil recruitment, was up-regulated in the skin but absent from the ganglia. Within the ganglia, Cxcl2 expression and subsequent neutrophil recruitment was inhibited by type I interferon (IFN). Using a combination of bone marrow chimeras and intracellular chemokine staining, we show that type I IFN acted by directly suppressing Cxcl2 expression by monocytes, abrogating their ability to recruit neutrophils to the ganglia. Overall, our findings describe a novel role for IFN in the direct, and selective, inhibition of Cxcr2 chemokine ligands, which results in the inhibition of neutrophil recruitment to neuronal tissue.

Optimization of TCR transgenic T cells for in vivo tracking of immune responses.

T-cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mice have proven useful for the study of various immune parameters. Despite this, it has been suggested that transferred T cells respond differently to their endogenous counterparts at least in terms of conversion to antigen-experienced populations bearing memory cell markers. Here, we have compared the response of TCR transgenic T cells to endogenous populations within the context of infection with herpes simplex virus. We found that adoptive transfer at numbers approaching those of the endogenous virus-specific subset results in a response with similar kinetics, magnitude and memory subset conversion. This suggests that this form of optimized T-cell transfer remains a useful means of tracking antiviral immune responses.

Cutting edge: central memory T cells do not show accelerated proliferation or tissue infiltration in response to localized herpes simplex virus-1 infection.

Memory T cells mount an enhanced response to secondary infections. Such an enhancement has been attributed in part to the ability of memory cells to more rapidly respond to cognate stimulation. In this study we have examined the rapidity with which murine CD8(+) memory T cells respond to a localized infection with HSV. Although central memory T cells (TcM), but not the effector memory T cells, mounted a strong recall response to secondary infection, the kinetics of TcM proliferation, the magnitude of their expansion, and their infiltration into infected nonlymphoid tissues were not advanced compared with that observed for naive T cells. These findings imply that it is the lack of accelerated proliferation kinetics and the subsequent delayed dissemination into the periphery that limits the ability of TcM to rapidly control localized virus replication.

CTL response compensation for the loss of an immunodominant class I-restricted HSV-1 determinant.

The T-cell response to even complex pathogens is often focused on only a handful of immunodominant determinants. Such narrow responses provoke a selective pressure that can drive the emergence of CTL escape variants, raising the question of whether a broader response, targeting multiple non-dominant peptides may be more beneficial. To examine the ability of the T-cell repertoire to respond to non-dominant determinants, we have investigated how mutating the dominant peptide in HSV affects the magnitude of the CD8+ T-cell response. We found that the CTL response to HSV lacking the dominant peptide was only modestly reduced compared with the wild-type virus and, surprisingly, this compensation occurred without any enhancement in the response to an established minor epitope. These findings are supportive of a malleable T-cell repertoire that can elicit strong responses to alternate, unknown determinants in the absence of the dominant response.

CD4+ T cells can protect APC from CTL-mediated elimination.

Professional APC play a central role in generating antiviral CD8(+) CTL immunity. However, the fate of such APC following interaction with these same CTL remains poorly understood. We have shown previously that prolonged Ag presentation persists in the presence of a strong CTL response following HSV infection. In this study, we examined the mechanism of survival of APC in vivo when presenting an immunodominant determinant from HSV. We show that transferred peptide-labeled dendritic cells were eliminated from draining lymph nodes in the presence of HSV-specific CTL. Maturation of dendritic cells with LPS or anti-CD40 before injection protected against CTL lysis in vivo. Furthermore, endogenous APC could be eliminated from draining lymph nodes early after HSV infection by adoptive transfer of HSV-specific CTL, yet the cotransfer of significant virus-specific CD4(+) T cell help promoted prolonged Ag presentation. This suggests that Th cells may assist in prolonging class I-restricted Ag presentation, potentially enhancing CTL recruitment and allowing more efficient T cell priming.

Cutting edge: prolonged antigen presentation after herpes simplex virus-1 skin infection.

It has been reported that MHC class I-restricted Ag presentation persists for only a short period following infection with certain pathogens, declining in parallel with the emergence of specific CTL activity. We have examined this issue in the case of murine infection with HSV-1. We found that the period of Ag presentation capable of priming naive CD8(+) T cells is comparatively prolonged, persisting for at least 7 days after infection, and continuing despite the appearance of localized CTL activity. Ag presentation was abbreviated to 3 or 4 days postinfection by surgical excision of the inoculation site early after infection. This intervention attenuated the size of the primary CTL response, implying that prolonged presentation is necessary to drive maximal CTL expansion. Combined, these data show that, in some types of infection, CTL priming can extend well beyond the first 24-48 h after primary inoculation.