Regional Anesthesia as an Alternative to Procedural Sedation for Forearm Fracture Reductions in the Pediatric Emergency Department.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric forearm fractures are common injuries in the pediatric emergency department (PED). Pediatric procedural sedation (PPS) is often required for forearm fracture reductions and pain control for casting. Bier blocks and hematoma blocks are types of regional anesthesia (RA) procedures that can be performed as a potential alternative to PPS. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to compare the safety of RA with that of PPS. We hypothesized that RA has a safety profile that is equal or superior to PPS as well as a shorter duration of treatment in the PED. METHODS: Pediatric emergency department encounters in patients presenting with a diagnosis of radius fracture, ulna fracture, distal "both-bone" fracture, Monteggia fracture, and/or Galeazzi fracture were included. Outcomes of interest included patient adverse events (AEs), sedation medications used, PED duration of treatment (arrival time to disposition time), sedation failures, and reduction failures. RESULTS: Propensity matching was performed resulting in 632 well-matched RA-PPS pairs. The PPS cohort had 13% of encounters with at least 1 AE compared with 0.2% in the RA cohort, P < 0.001. The most common AE in the PPS group was hypoxia (9.8%), and the only AE in the RA group was an intravenous infiltrate (0.16%). Within the matched cohorts, PPS required more medications than RA (100% vs 60%, P < 0.001). Ketamine alone was more commonly used in the PPS group than the RA group (86% vs 0.2%, P < 0.001). Propofol was used only in the PPS group. The average duration of treatment was 205 (SD, 81) minutes in the PPS group and 178 (SD, 75) minutes in the RA group ( P < 0.001). There were no reduction failures in either group. CONCLUSIONS: Bier blocks and hematoma blocks are an acceptable alternative to PPS for children requiring forearm reductions. The AE rate is low and the reduction success rate is high. Duration of treatment in the PED is shorter for patients receiving RA compared with PPS.

The Management of Children and Youth With Pediatric Mental and Behavioral Health Emergencies.

Mental and behavioral health (MBH) emergencies in children and youth continue to increasingly affect not only the emergency department (ED), but the entire spectrum of emergency medical services for children, from prehospital services to the community. Inadequate community and institutional infrastructure to care for children and youth with MBH conditions makes the ED an essential part of the health care safety net for these patients. As a result, an increasing number of children and youth are referred to the ED for evaluation of a broad spectrum of MBH emergencies, from depression and suicidality to disruptive and aggressive behavior. However, challenges in providing optimal care to these patients include lack of personnel, capacity, and infrastructure, challenges with timely access to a mental health professional, the nature of a busy ED environment, and paucity of outpatient post-ED discharge resources. These factors contribute to prolonged ED stays and boarding, which negatively affects patient care and ED operations. Strategies to improve care for MBH emergencies, including systems level coordination of care, is therefore essential. The goal of this policy statement and its companion technical report is to highlight strategies, resources, and recommendations for improving emergency care delivery for pediatric MBH.

The Management of Children and Youth With Pediatric Mental and Behavioral Health Emergencies.

Mental and behavioral health (MBH) emergencies in children and youth continue to increasingly affect not only the emergency department (ED), but the entire spectrum of emergency medical services for children, from prehospital services to the community. Inadequate community and institutional infrastructure to care for children and youth with MBH conditions makes the ED an essential part of the health care safety net for these patients. As a result, an increasing number of children and youth are referred to the ED for evaluation of a broad spectrum of MBH emergencies, from depression and suicidality to disruptive and aggressive behavior. However, challenges in providing optimal care to these patients include lack of personnel, capacity, and infrastructure, challenges with timely access to a mental health professional, the nature of a busy ED environment, and paucity of outpatient post-ED discharge resources. These factors contribute to prolonged ED stays and boarding, which negatively affects patient care and ED operations. Strategies to improve care for MBH emergencies, including systems level coordination of care, is therefore essential. The goal of this policy statement and its companion technical report is to highlight strategies, resources, and recommendations for improving emergency care delivery for pediatric MBH.

Pediatric Emergency Medicine Fellowship Procedural Sedation Training: Consensus Educational Guidelines.

OBJECTIVES: Pediatric procedural sedation (PPS) is a core clinical competency of pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) fellowship training mandated by both the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education and the American Board of Pediatrics. Neither of these certifying bodies, however, offers specific guidance with regard to attaining and evaluating proficiency in trainees. Recent publications have revealed inconsistency in educational approaches, attending oversight, PPS service rotation experiences, and evaluation practices among PEM fellowship programs. METHODS: A select group of PEM experts in PPS, PEM fellowship directors, PEM physicians with educational roles locally and nationally, PEM fellows, and recent PEM fellowship graduates collaborated to address this opportunity for improvement. RESULTS: This consensus driven educational guideline was developed to outline PPS core topics, evaluation methodology, and resources to create or modify a PPS curriculum for PEM fellowship programs. This curriculum was developed to map to fellowship Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education core competencies and to use multiple modes of dissemination to meet the needs of diverse programs and learners. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation and utilization of a standardized PPS curriculum as outlined in this educational guideline will equip PEM fellows with a comprehensive PPS knowledge base. Pediatric emergency medicine fellows should graduate with the competence and confidence to deliver safe and effective PPS care. Future study after implementation of the guideline is warranted to determine its efficacy.

The Use of Intranasal Dexmedetomidine and Midazolam for Sedated Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Children: A Report From the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to describe the use of intranasal dexmedetomidine (IN DEX) for sedated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations in children. The use of IN DEX for MRI in children has not been well described in the literature. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium (PSRC) is a collaborative and multidisciplinary group of sedation practitioners dedicated to understanding and improving the process of pediatric sedation. We searched the 2007 version of the PSRC database solely for instances in which IN DEX was used for MRI diagnostic studies. Patients receiving intravenous medications were excluded. Patient demographics, IN DEX dose, adjunct medications and dose, as well as procedure completion, complications, interventions, and monitoring providers were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 224 sedation encounters were included in our primary analysis. There were no major adverse events. Most sedations (88%) required no intervention. Registered nurses were the monitoring provider in over 99% of cases. The median (interquartile range) dose of dexmedetomidine was 3 (2.5-3) mcg/kg. Adjunctive midazolam was used in 219/224 (98%) of the cases. All procedures were completed. CONCLUSIONS: This report from the PSRC shows that IN DEX in combination with midazolam is an effective medication regimen for children who require an MRI with sedation.

Radiologic Imaging in Trauma Patients with Cervical Spine Immobilization at a Pediatric Trauma Center.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric trauma patients with cervical spine (CS) immobilization using a cervical collar often require procedural sedation (PS) for radiologic imaging. The limited ability to perform airway maneuvers while CS immobilized with a cervical collar is a concern for emergency department (ED) staff providing PS. OBJECTIVE: To describe the use of PS and analgesia for radiologic imaging acquisition in pediatric trauma patients with CS immobilization. METHODS: Retrospective medical record review of all trauma patients with CS immobilization at a high-volume pediatric trauma center was performed. Patient demographics, imaging modality, PS success, sedative and analgesia medications, and adverse events were analyzed. Patients intubated prior to arrival to the ED were excluded. RESULTS: A total of 1417 patients with 1898 imaging encounters met our inclusion criteria. A total of 398 patients required more than one radiographic imaging procedure. The median age was 8 years (range 3.8-12.75 years). Computed tomography of the head was used in 974 of the 1898 patients (51.3%). A total of 956 of the 1898 patients (50.4%) required sedatives or analgesics for their radiographic imaging, with 875 (91.5%) requiring a single sedative or analgesic agent, and 81 (8.5%) requiring more than one medication. Airway obstruction was the most common adverse event, occurring in 5 of 956 patients (0.3%). All imaging procedures were successfully completed. CONCLUSION: Only 50% of CS immobilized, nonintubated patients required a single sedative or analgesic medication for their radiologic imaging. Procedural success was high, with few adverse events.

Acute opioid overdose in pediatric patients.

Recent increases in pediatric and adolescent opioid fatalities mandate an urgent need for early consideration of possible opioid exposure and specific diagnostic and management strategies and interventions tailored to these unique populations. In contrast to adults, pediatric methods of exposure include accidental ingestions, prescription misuse, and household exposure. Early recognition, appropriate diagnostic evaluation, along with specialized treatment for opioid toxicity in this demographic are discussed. A key focus is on Naloxone, an essential medication for opioid intoxication, addressing its unique challenges in pediatric use. Unique pediatric considerations include recognition of accidental ingestions in our youngest population, critical social aspects including home safety and intentional exposure, and harm reduction strategies, mainly through Naloxone distribution and education on safe medication practices. It calls for a multifaceted approach, including creating pediatric-specific guidelines, to combat the opioid crisis among children and to work to lower morbidity and mortality from opioid overdoses.

Physician self-identified race and opioid prescription practices in upper extremity injuries in the pediatric emergency department.

Background: Minority children have been shown to receive fewer opioid analgesics for acute pain. Objective: Assess if both White and non-White physicians prescribe fewer opioids to non-White children presenting to the pediatric emergency department (PED) with upper extremity (UE) fractures. Methods: Patients with acute UE fractures were evaluated. Attending physicians provided their self-identified race and consented to analysis of their opioid prescribing practices. Primary outcome was receipt of an opioid prescription at discharge. Bivariate analyses measured the association between patient race and receipt of an opioid prescription; further analysis evaluated the effect of physician race on prescription practices. Generalized linear models measured these associations while controlling for confounders. Results: Thirty-four percent of eligible patients (2754/8155) were discharged with an opioid prescription. There was no statistically significant difference in odds of being discharged with an opioid prescription for non-Hispanic Black (NHB) compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) patients. There was no statistically significant difference in odds of prescribing opioids by both White physicians and non-White physicians. In patients with the most severe fractures, requiring sedation for reduction, NHB patients had lower odds of receiving an opioid prescription (OR 0.80; 95% CI: 0.65-0.98). Conclusion: Within our institution, NHB patients received fewer opioid prescriptions at discharge for UE fractures. There is no statistically significant association between NHB race and odds of receiving an opioid prescription. In patients sedated for fracture reductions, NHB patients had lower odds of receiving an opioid prescription and non-White physicians had lower odds of prescribing opioids to NHB patients compared to NHW patients.

Clinical Outcomes Associated With Intranasal Dexmedetomidine Sedation in Children.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to describe the quality of sedation and additional clinically-meaningful outcomes associated with different intranasal dexmedetomidine-based regimens in children undergoing nonpainful procedures. METHODS: A multicenter prospective observational study of children aged 2 months to 17 years undergoing intranasal dexmedetomidine sedation for MRI, auditory brainstem response testing, echocardiogram, EEG, or computed tomography scan. Regimens varied by dose of dexmedetomidine and use of adjunct sedatives. Quality of sedation was assessed using the Pediatric Sedation State Scale and by determining proportion of children who achieved an acceptable sedation state. Procedure completion, time-based outcomes, and adverse events were assessed. RESULTS: We enrolled 578 children across 7 sites. Median age was 2.5 years (interquartile range 1.6-3) and 37.5% were female. The most common procedures were auditory brainstem response testing (54.3%) and MRI (22.8%). The most common dose was 3 to 3.9 mcg/kg (55%), with 25.1% and 14.2% of children receiving oral or intranasal midazolam, respectively. Acceptable sedation state and procedure completion was achieved in 81.1% and 91.3% of children, and mean time to onset of sedation and total sedation time were 32.3 and 114.8 minutes, respectively. Twelve interventions were performed in 10 patients in response to an event; no patients required a serious airway, breathing, or cardiovascular intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Intranasal dexmedetomidine-based regimens can achieve acceptable sedation states and high rates of procedure completion in children undergoing sedation for nonpainful procedures. Our findings delineate clinical outcomes associated with intranasal dexmedetomidine-based sedation that can be used to guide the implementation and optimization of such regimens.

The Management of Children and Youth With Pediatric Mental and Behavioral Health Emergencies.

Mental and behavioral health (MBH) visits of children and youth to emergency departments are increasing in the United States. Reasons for these visits range from suicidal ideation, self-harm, and eating and substance use disorders to behavioral outbursts, aggression, and psychosis. Despite the increase in prevalence of these conditions, the capacity of the health care system to screen, diagnose, and manage these patients continues to decline. Several social determinants also contribute to great disparities in child and adolescent (youth) health, which affect MBH outcomes. In addition, resources and space for emergency physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and prehospital practitioners to manage these patients remain limited and inconsistent throughout the United States, as is financial compensation and payment for such services. This technical report discusses the role of physicians, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners, and provides guidance for the management of acute MBH emergencies in children and youth. Unintentional ingestions and substance use disorder are not within the scope of this report and are not specifically discussed.

The Management of Children and Youth With Pediatric Mental and Behavioral Health Emergencies.

Mental and behavioral health (MBH) emergencies in children and youth continue to increasingly affect not only the emergency department (ED), but the entire spectrum of emergency medical services for children, from prehospital services to the community. Inadequate community and institutional infrastructure to care for children and youth with MBH conditions makes the ED an essential part of the health care safety net for these patients. As a result, an increasing number of children and youth are referred to the ED for evaluation of a broad spectrum of MBH emergencies, from depression and suicidality to disruptive and aggressive behavior. However, challenges in providing optimal care to these patients include lack of personnel, capacity, and infrastructure; challenges with timely access to a mental health professional; the nature of a busy ED environment; and paucity of outpatient post-ED discharge resources. These factors contribute to prolonged ED stays and boarding, which negatively affect patient care and ED operations. Strategies to improve care for MBH emergencies, including systems-level coordination of care, are therefore essential. The goal of this policy statement and its companion technical report is to highlight strategies, resources, and recommendations for improving emergency care delivery for pediatric MBH.

Marijuana use in children: An update focusing on pediatric tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol use.

Cannabis is the most used recreational drug in the United States, and its use is increasing among children and adolescents.  With the increase in legalized use, there have been increases in intentional and accidental cannabis exposure in the pediatric population. There is also minimized perceived risk.  We review the current use of cannabis and its derivatives, the drug effects and clinical presentation, common misconceptions, pharmacology, and epidemiology. Finally, we review some long-term consequences of cannabis use.

Managing acute pain in children presenting to the emergency department without opioids.

Pediatric pain is challenging to assess and manage. Frequently underestimated in children, untreated pain may have consequences including increased fear, anxiety, and psychological issues. With the current opioid crisis, emergency physicians must be knowledgeable in both pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic approaches to address pain and anxiety in children that lead to enhanced patient cooperation and family satisfaction. This document focuses pain management and distress mitigation strategies for the brief diagnostic and therapeutic procedures commonly performed.

Evaluation of pediatric procedural sedation education in pediatric emergency medicine fellowships.

ABSTRACT: Pediatric procedural sedation (PPS) is often performed outside of the operating room, and by various sub-specialty providers. There is no consistency in how pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) fellows are trained in PPS. The objective of this study was to survey PEM program directors (PDs) and PEM fellows about their current sedation teaching practices via a direct survey. While many fellowship programs train PEM fellows in PPS, we hypothesize that there is no consistent method of developing and measuring this skill.A 12-question survey was sent to PEM PDs directly via email. A separate 17-question survey was sent to current PEM fellows via their program coordinators by email. Each survey had multiple choice, yes-no and select-all program questions. Responses were collected in an online (REDCap) database and summarized as frequencies and percentages.Based on identifiable email, 67 programs were contacted, with a PD response rate of 46 (59%). Sixty-two program coordinators were contacted based on identifiable email with 78 fellow responses. We noted that 11/46 PD respondents offer a formal PPS rotation. Thirty programs report using propofol in the emergency department and 93% of PD respondents (28/30) actively train fellows in the use of propofol. Approximately 62% of PEM fellow respondents (48/78) report sedating without any attending oversight. Twenty-eight percent of PEM fellow respondents report using simulation as a component of their sedation training.PPS is a critical skill. However, there is a lack of consistency in both education and evaluation of competency in this area. An organized PPS rotation would improve PPS case exposure and PPS skills.

Emergency department strategies to combat the opioid crisis in children and adolescents.

The opioid crisis has greatly affected not only adults but also children as well. As clinicians develop effective approaches to minimize pain and distress in children, the risks and benefits of opioids must be carefully considered. Children of parents with opioid use disorder are also at risk of living in unstable environments, performing poorly academically, engaging in future drug use, and having increased stress, which affects their development before entering adulthood. This statement focuses on the effects of the opioid crisis on children and adolescents and is intended to inform institutional policies, improve education, advocate for evidence-informed guidelines, and improve the care of children affected by the opioid epidemic who are seen in the emergency department.

Procedural Sedation Outside the Operating Room and Potential Neurotoxicity: Analysis of an At-Risk Pediatric Population.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the characteristics of children who met the risk criteria for potential neurotoxicity defined by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA; 2016 warning) in a procedural sedation (PS) service. STUDY DESIGN: A single-center retrospective review of all infants and children aged <3 years receiving PS outside the operating room from 2014 to 2016. Demographics, duration of, and the reason for PS were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 2950 patients with 3653 sedation encounters were included. Median age was 19 (range, 11-26) months. Most PS (86.4%) were for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The median number of sedation procedures per patient was 1 (25th-75th: 1-7), and median duration of sedation was 72 minutes (25th-75th: 55-98 minutes). Forty patients (1.4%) required prolonged sedations >3 hours, in a single encounter (median, [25th-75th] of 196 minutes [185-214 minutes]), and 298 patients (10.1%) had multiple sedation exposures during the study period. Overall, 327 patients, 11.1% (95% confidence interval, 10.0%-12.3%) required repeated and/or prolonged sedation. The most common reasons for repeated or prolonged sedation were MRI of the brain and neurologic concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple and prolonged PS commonly occurs outside the operating room in this young and potentially vulnerable population. Although certain imaging cannot be avoided, other cases may have the potential to be delayed until the child is >3 years old or to have alternate imaging that may not require prolonged PS. Family and provider awareness of the FDA warnings regarding potential neurotoxicity of sedation in all settings, both inside and outside the operating room, is critical.

A National Approach to Pediatric Sepsis Surveillance.

Pediatric sepsis is a major public health concern, and robust surveillance tools are needed to characterize its incidence, outcomes, and trends. The increasing use of electronic health records (EHRs) in the United States creates an opportunity to conduct reliable, pragmatic, and generalizable population-level surveillance using routinely collected clinical data rather than administrative claims or resource-intensive chart review. In 2015, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recruited sepsis investigators and representatives of key professional societies to develop an approach to adult sepsis surveillance using clinical data recorded in EHRs. This led to the creation of the adult sepsis event definition, which was used to estimate the national burden of sepsis in adults and has been adapted into a tool kit to facilitate widespread implementation by hospitals. In July 2018, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention convened a new multidisciplinary pediatric working group to tailor an EHR-based national sepsis surveillance approach to infants and children. Here, we describe the challenges specific to pediatric sepsis surveillance, including evolving clinical definitions of sepsis, accommodation of age-dependent physiologic differences, identifying appropriate EHR markers of infection and organ dysfunction among infants and children, and the need to account for children with medical complexity and the growing regionalization of pediatric care. We propose a preliminary pediatric sepsis event surveillance definition and outline next steps for refining and validating these criteria so that they may be used to estimate the national burden of pediatric sepsis and support site-specific surveillance to complement ongoing initiatives to improve sepsis prevention, recognition, and treatment.

Pediatric Procedural Sedation Using Dexmedetomidine: A Report From the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium.

OBJECTIVES: Dexmedetomidine (DEX) is widely used in pediatric procedural sedation (PPS) by a variety of pediatric subspecialists. The objective of our study was to describe the overall rates of adverse events and serious adverse events (SAEs) when DEX is used by various pediatric subspecialists. METHODS: Patients from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium (PSRC) database were retrospectively reviewed and children that received DEX as their primary sedation agent for elective PPS were identified. Demographic and clinical data, provider subspecialty, and sedation-related complications were abstracted. SAEs were defined as death, cardiac arrest, upper airway obstruction, laryngospasm, emergent airway intervention, unplanned hospital admission/increased level of care, aspiration, or emergency anesthesia consult. Event rates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. RESULTS: During the study period, 13 072 children were sedated using DEX, accounting for 5.3% of all sedation cases entered into the PSRC. Of the sedated patients, 73% were American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status class 1 or 2. The pediatric providers responsible for patients sedated with DEX were anesthesiologists (35%), intensivists (34%), emergency medicine physicians (12.7%), hospitalists (1.1%), and others (17%). The overall AE rate was 466/13 072 (3.6%, 95% CI 3.3% to 3.9%). The overall SAE rate was 45/13 072 (0.34%, 95% CI 0.19% to 0.037%). Airway obstruction was the most common SAE: 35/13 072 (0.27%, 95% CI 0.19% to 0.37%). Sedations were successful in 99.7% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: We report the largest series of PPS using DEX outside the operating room. Within the PSRC, PPS performed using DEX has a very high success rate and is unlikely to yield a high rate of SAEs.