A low-spin Fe(iii) complex with 100-ps ligand-to-metal charge transfer photoluminescence.

Transition-metal complexes are used as photosensitizers, in light-emitting diodes, for biosensing and in photocatalysis. A key feature in these applications is excitation from the ground state to a charge-transfer state; the long charge-transfer-state lifetimes typical for complexes of ruthenium and other precious metals are often essential to ensure high performance. There is much interest in replacing these scarce elements with Earth-abundant metals, with iron and copper being particularly attractive owing to their low cost and non-toxicity. But despite the exploration of innovative molecular designs, it remains a formidable scientific challenge to access Earth-abundant transition-metal complexes with long-lived charge-transfer excited states. No known iron complexes are considered photoluminescent at room temperature, and their rapid excited-state deactivation precludes their use as photosensitizers. Here we present the iron complex [Fe(btz)3]3+ (where btz is 3,3'-dimethyl-1,1'-bis(p-tolyl)-4,4'-bis(1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene)), and show that the superior σ-donor and π-acceptor electron properties of the ligand stabilize the excited state sufficiently to realize a long charge-transfer lifetime of 100 picoseconds (ps) and room-temperature photoluminescence. This species is a low-spin Fe(iii) d5 complex, and emission occurs from a long-lived doublet ligand-to-metal charge-transfer (2LMCT) state that is rarely seen for transition-metal complexes. The absence of intersystem crossing, which often gives rise to large excited-state energy losses in transition-metal complexes, enables the observation of spin-allowed emission directly to the ground state and could be exploited as an increased driving force in photochemical reactions on surfaces. These findings suggest that appropriate design strategies can deliver new iron-based materials for use as light emitters and photosensitizers.

Publisher's Note: Femtosecond X-Ray Scattering Study of Ultrafast Photoinduced Structural Dynamics in Solvated [Co(terpy)_{2}]

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.013002.

Hot Branching Dynamics in a Light-Harvesting Iron Carbene Complex Revealed by Ultrafast X-ray Emission Spectroscopy.

Iron N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes have received a great deal of attention recently because of their growing potential as light sensitizers or photocatalysts. We present a sub-ps X-ray spectroscopy study of an FeII NHC complex that identifies and quantifies the states involved in the deactivation cascade after light absorption. Excited molecules relax back to the ground state along two pathways: After population of a hot 3 MLCT state, from the initially excited 1 MLCT state, 30 % of the molecules undergo ultrafast (150 fs) relaxation to the 3 MC state, in competition with vibrational relaxation and cooling to the relaxed 3 MLCT state. The relaxed 3 MLCT state then decays much more slowly (7.6 ps) to the 3 MC state. The 3 MC state is rapidly (2.2 ps) deactivated to the ground state. The 5 MC state is not involved in the deactivation pathway. The ultrafast partial deactivation of the 3 MLCT state constitutes a loss channel from the point of view of photochemical efficiency and highlights the necessity to screen transition-metal complexes for similar ultrafast decays to optimize photochemical performance.

Band-selective dynamics in charge-transfer excited iron carbene complexes.

Ultrafast dynamics of photoinduced charge transfer processes in light-harvesting systems based on Earth-abundant transition metal complexes are of current interest for the development of molecular devices for solar energy conversion applications. A combination of ultrafast spectroscopy and first principles quantum chemical calculations of a recently synthesized iron carbene complex is used to elucidate the ultrafast excited state evolution processes in these systems with particular emphasis on investigating the underlying reasons why these complexes show promise in terms of significantly extended lifetimes of charge transfer excited states. Together, our results challenge the traditional excited state landscape for iron-based light harvesting transition metal complexes through radically different ground and excited state properties in alternative oxidation states. This includes intriguing indications of rich band-selective excited state dynamics on ultrafast timescales that are interpreted in terms of excitation energy dependence for excitations into a manifold of charge-transfer states. Some implications of the observed excited state properties and photoinduced dynamics for the utilization of iron carbene complexes for solar energy conversion applications are finally discussed.

Ultrafast Electron Dynamics in Solar Energy Conversion.

Electrons are the workhorses of solar energy conversion. Conversion of the energy of light to electricity in photovoltaics, or to energy-rich molecules (solar fuel) through photocatalytic processes, invariably starts with photoinduced generation of energy-rich electrons. The harvesting of these electrons in practical devices rests on a series of electron transfer processes whose dynamics and efficiencies determine the function of materials and devices. To capture the energy of a photogenerated electron-hole pair in a solar cell material, charges of opposite sign have to be separated against electrostatic attractions, prevented from recombining and being transported through the active material to electrodes where they can be extracted. In photocatalytic solar fuel production, these electron processes are coupled to chemical reactions leading to storage of the energy of light in chemical bonds. With the focus on the ultrafast time scale, we here discuss the light-induced electron processes underlying the function of several molecular and hybrid materials currently under development for solar energy applications in dye or quantum dot-sensitized solar cells, polymer-fullerene polymer solar cells, organometal halide perovskite solar cells, and finally some photocatalytic systems.

Fe N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes as Promising Photosensitizers.

The photophysics and photochemistry of transition metal complexes (TMCs) has long been a hot field of interdisciplinary research. Rich metal-based redox processes, together with a high variety in electronic configurations and excited-state dynamics, have rendered TMCs excellent candidates for interconversion between light, chemical, and electrical energies in intramolecular, supramolecular, and interfacial arrangements. In specific applications such as photocatalytic organic synthesis, photoelectrochemical cells, and light-driven supramolecular motors, light absorption by a TMC-based photosensitizer and subsequent excited-state energy or electron transfer constitute essential steps. In this context, TMCs based on rare and expensive metals, such as ruthenium and iridium, are frequently employed as photosensitizers, which is obviously not ideal for large-scale implementation. In the search for abundant and environmentally benign solutions, six-coordinate Fe(II) complexes (Fe(II)L6) have been widely considered as highly desirable alternatives. However, not much success has been achieved due to the extremely short-lived triplet metal-to-ligand charge transfer ((3)MLCT) excited state that is deactivated by low-lying metal-centered (MC) states on a 100 fs time scale. A fundamental strategy to design useful Fe-based photosensitizers is thus to destabilize the MC states relative to the (3)MLCT state by increasing the ligand field strength, with special focus on making eg σ* orbitals on the Fe center energetically less accessible. Previous efforts to directly transplant successful strategies from Ru(II)L6 complexes unfortunately met with limited success in this regard, despite their close chemical kinship. In this Account, we summarize recent promising results from our and other groups in utilizing strongly σ-donating N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands to make strong-field Fe(II)L6 complexes with significantly extended (3)MLCT lifetimes. Already some of the first homoleptic bis(tridentate) complexes incorporating (CNHC^Npyridine^CNHC)-type ligands gratifyingly resulted in extension of the (3)MLCT lifetime by more than 2 orders of magnitude compared to the parental [Fe(tpy)2](2+) (tpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine) complex. Quantum chemical (QC) studies also revealed that the (3)MC instead of the (5)MC state likely dictates the deactivation of the (3)MLCT state, a behavior distinct from traditional Fe(II)L6 complexes but rather resembling Ru analogues. A heteroleptic Fe(II) NHC complex featuring mesoionic bis(1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene) (btz) ligands also delivered a 100-fold elongation of the (3)MLCT lifetime relative to its parental [Fe(bpy)3](2+) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) complex. Again, a Ru-like deactivation mechanism of the (3)MLCT state was indicated by QC studies. With a COOH-functionalized homoleptic complex, a record (3)MLCT lifetime of 37 ps was recently observed on an Al2O3 nanofilm. As a proof of concept, it was further demonstrated that the significant improvement in the (3)MLCT lifetime indeed benefits efficient light harvesting with Fe(II) NHC complexes. For the first time, close-to-unity electron injection from the lowest-energy (3)MLCT state to a TiO2 nanofilm was achieved by a stable Fe(II) complex. This is in complete contrast to conventional Fe(II)L6-derived photosensitizers that could only make use of high-energy photons. These exciting results significantly broaden the understanding of the fundamental photophysics and photochemistry of d(6) Fe(II) complexes. They also open up new possibilities to develop solar energy-converting materials based on this abundant, inexpensive, and intrinsically nontoxic element.

Femtosecond X-Ray Scattering Study of Ultrafast Photoinduced Structural Dynamics in Solvated [Co(terpy)_{2}]

We study the structural dynamics of photoexcited [Co(terpy)_{2}]^{2+} in an aqueous solution with ultrafast x-ray diffuse scattering experiments conducted at the Linac Coherent Light Source. Through direct comparisons with density functional theory calculations, our analysis shows that the photoexcitation event leads to elongation of the Co-N bonds, followed by coherent Co-N bond length oscillations arising from the impulsive excitation of a vibrational mode dominated by the symmetrical stretch of all six Co-N bonds. This mode has a period of 0.33 ps and decays on a subpicosecond time scale. We find that the equilibrium bond-elongated structure of the high spin state is established on a single-picosecond time scale and that this state has a lifetime of ∼7 ps.

Excited state and charge-carrier dynamics in perovskite solar cell materials.

Organo-metal halide perovskites (OMHPs) have attracted enormous interest in recent years as materials for application in optoelectronics and solar energy conversion. These hybrid semiconductors seem to have the potential to challenge traditional silicon technology. In this review we will give an account of the recent development in the understanding of the fundamental light-induced processes in OMHPs from charge-photo generation, migration of charge carries through the materials and finally their recombination. Our and other literature reports on time-resolved conductivity, transient absorption and photoluminescence properties are used to paint a picture of how we currently see the fundamental excited state and charge-carrier dynamics. We will also show that there is still no fully coherent picture of the processes in OMHPs and we will indicate the problems to be solved by future research.

Giant photoluminescence blinking of perovskite nanocrystals reveals single-trap control of luminescence.

Fluorescence super-resolution microscopy showed correlated fluctuations of photoluminescence intensity and spatial localization of individual perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3) nanocrystals of size ∼200 × 30 × 30 nm(3). The photoluminescence blinking amplitude caused by a single quencher was a hundred thousand times larger than that of a typical dye molecule at the same excitation power density. The quencher is proposed to be a chemical or structural defect that traps free charges leading to nonradiative recombination. These trapping sites can be activated and deactivated by light.

Mechanism of Charge Transfer and Recombination Dynamics in Organo Metal Halide Perovskites and Organic Electrodes, PCBM, and Spiro-OMeTAD: Role of Dark Carriers.

Despite the unprecedented interest in organic-inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cells, quantitative information on the charge transfer dynamics into selective electrodes is still lacking. In this paper, we report the time scales and mechanisms of electron and hole injection and recombination dynamics at organic PCBM and Spiro-OMeTAD electrode interfaces. On the one hand, hole transfer is complete on the subpicosecond time scale in MAPbI3/Spiro-OMeTAD, and its recombination rate is similar to that in neat MAPbI3. This was found to be due to a high concentration of dark charges, i.e., holes brought about by unintentional p-type doping of MAPbI3. Hence, the total concentration of holes in the perovskite is hardly affected by optical excitation, which manifested as similar decay kinetics. On the other hand, the decay of the photoinduced conductivity in MAPbI3/PCBM is on the time scale of hundreds of picoseconds to several nanoseconds, due to electron injection into PCBM and electron-hole recombination at the interface occurring at similar rates. These results highlight the importance of understanding the role of dark carriers in deconvoluting the complex photophysical processes in these materials. Moreover, optimizing the preparation processes wherein undesired doping is minimized could prompt the use of organic molecules as a more viable electrode substitute for perovskite solar cell devices.

A heteroleptic ferrous complex with mesoionic bis(1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene) ligands: taming the MLCT excited state of iron(II).

Strongly σ-donating N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have revived research interest in the catalytic chemistry of iron, and are now also starting to bring the photochemistry and photophysics of this abundant element into a new era. In this work, a heteroleptic Fe(II) complex (1) was synthesized based on sequentially furnishing the Fe(II) center with the benchmark 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) ligand and the more strongly σ-donating mesoionic ligand, 4,4'-bis(1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidene) (btz). Complex 1 was comprehensively characterized by electrochemistry, static and ultrafast spectroscopy, and quantum chemical calculations and compared to [Fe(bpy)3](PF6)2 and (TBA)2[Fe(bpy)(CN)4]. Heteroleptic complex 1 extends the absorption spectrum towards longer wavelengths compared to a previously synthesized homoleptic Fe(II) NHC complex. The combination of the mesoionic nature of btz and the heteroleptic structure effectively destabilizes the metal-centered (MC) states relative to the triplet metal-to-ligand charge transfer ((3)MLCT) state in 1, rendering it a lifetime of 13 ps, the longest to date of a photochemically stable Fe(II) complex. Deactivation of the (3)MLCT state is proposed to proceed via the (3)MC state that strongly couples with the singlet ground state.

Mechanistic insights into perovskite photoluminescence enhancement: light curing with oxygen can boost yield thousandfold.

A light-induced photoluminescence (PL) enhancement in surface-deposited methylammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3PbI3) perovskites was investigated in detail using time-resolved luminescence microscopy. We found the PL intensity to increase up to three orders of magnitude upon light illumination with an excitation power density of 0.01-1 W cm(-2). The PL enhancement is accompanied by an increase of the PL lifetime from several nanoseconds to several hundred nanoseconds and also by an increase of the initial amplitude of the PL decay. The latter suggests excited state quenching at the subpicosecond timescale. We propose a model where the trapping sites responsible for non-radiative charge recombination can be de-activated by a photochemical reaction involving oxygen. The reaction zone is spatially limited by the excitation light-penetration depth and diffusion length of the charge carriers. The latter increases in the course of the light-curing process making the reaction zone spreading from the surface towards the interior of the crystal. The PL enhancement can be reversed by switching on/off the excitation light or switching the atmosphere between oxygen and nitrogen. Slow diffusion of the reactants and products and equilibrium between the active and "cured" trapping sites are proposed to be the reasons for peculiar responses of PL to such varied experimental conditions.

Palladium versus platinum: the metal in the catalytic center of a molecular photocatalyst determines the mechanism of the hydrogen production with visible light.

To develop highly efficient molecular photocatalysts for visible light-driven hydrogen production, a thorough understanding of the photophysical and chemical processes in the photocatalyst is of vital importance. In this context, in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopic (XAS) investigations show that the nature of the catalytically active metal center in a (N^N)MCl2 (M=Pd or Pt) coordination sphere has a significant impact on the mechanism of the hydrogen formation. Pd as the catalytic center showed a substantially altered chemical environment and a formation of metal colloids during catalysis, whereas no changes of the coordination sphere were observed for Pt as catalytic center. The high stability of the Pt center was confirmed by chloride addition and mercury poisoning experiments. Thus, for Pt a fundamentally different catalytic mechanism without the involvement of colloids is confirmed.

Superior photoprotective motifs and mechanisms in eumelanins uncovered.

Human pigmentation is a complex phenomenon commonly believed to serve a photoprotective function through the generation and strategic localization of black insoluble eumelanin biopolymers in sun exposed areas of the body. Despite compelling biomedical relevance to skin cancer and melanoma, eumelanin photoprotection is still an enigma: What makes this pigment so efficient in dissipating the excess energy brought by harmful UV-light as heat? Why has Nature selected 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA) as the major building block of the pigment instead of the decarboxylated derivative (DHI)? By using pico- and femtosecond fluorescence spectroscopy we demonstrate herein that the excited state deactivation in DHICA oligomers is 3 orders of magnitude faster compared to DHI oligomers. This drastic effect is attributed to their specific structural patterns enabling multiple pathways of intra- and interunit proton transfer. The discovery that DHICA-based scaffolds specifically confer uniquely robust photoprotective properties to natural eumelanins settles a fundamental gap in the biology of human pigmentation and opens the doorway to attractive advances and applications.

Charge carrier generation and transport in different stoichiometry APFO3:PC61BM solar cells.

In this paper we studied carrier drift dynamics in APFO3:PC61BM solar cells of varied stoichiometry (2:1, 1:1, and 1:4 APFO3:PC61BM) over a wide time range, from subpicoseconds to microseconds with a combination of ultrafast optical electric field probing and conventional transient integrated photocurrent techniques. Carrier drift and extraction dynamics are strongly stoichiometry dependent: the speed of electron or hole drift increases with higher concentration of PC61BM or polymer, respectively. The electron extraction from a sample with 80% PC61BM takes place during hundreds of picoseconds, but slows down to sub-microseconds in a sample with 33% PC61BM. The hole extraction is less stoichiometry dependent: it varies form sub-nanoseconds to tens of nanoseconds when the PC61BM concentration changes from 33% to 80%. The electron extraction rate correlates with the conversion efficiency of solar cells, leading to the conclusion that fast electron motion is essential for efficient charge carrier separation preventing their geminate recombination.

Organometal halide perovskite solar cell materials rationalized: ultrafast charge generation, high and microsecond-long balanced mobilities, and slow recombination.

Organometal halide perovskite-based solar cells have recently been reported to be highly efficient, giving an overall power conversion efficiency of up to 15%. However, much of the fundamental photophysical properties underlying this performance has remained unknown. Here, we apply photoluminescence, transient absorption, time-resolved terahertz and microwave conductivity measurements to determine the time scales of generation and recombination of charge carriers as well as their transport properties in solution-processed CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite materials. We found that electron-hole pairs are generated almost instantaneously after photoexcitation and dissociate in 2 ps forming highly mobile charges (25 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) in the neat perovskite and in perovskite/alumina blends; almost balanced electron and hole mobilities remain very high up to the microsecond time scale. When the perovskite is introduced into a TiO2 mesoporous structure, electron injection from perovskite to the metal oxide is efficient in less than a picosecond, but the lower intrinsic electron mobility of TiO2 leads to unbalanced charge transport. Microwave conductivity measurements showed that the decay of mobile charges is very slow in CH3NH3PbI3, lasting up to tens of microseconds. These results unravel the remarkable intrinsic properties of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite material if used as light absorber and charge transport layer. Moreover, finding a metal oxide with higher electron mobility may further increase the performance of this class of solar cells.

Highly accurate excited-state structure of [Os(bpy)2dcbpy](2+) determined by X-ray transient absorption spectroscopy.

Determining the electronic and geometric structures of photoexcited transient species with high accuracy is crucial for understanding their fundamental photochemistry and controlling their photoreactivity. We have applied X-ray transient absorption spectroscopy to measure the XANES and EXAFS spectra of a dilute (submillimolar) solution of the osmium(II) polypyridyl complex [Os(bpy)2dcbpy](PF6)2 (dcbpy = 4,4'-dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine) (OsL2L') in methanol at the Os LIII edge. We have obtained spectra of superb quality for both the ground state and the photoinduced (3)MLCT excited state that have allowed us not only to extract detailed information about the Os 5d orbitals but also to resolve very small differences of 0.010 ± 0.008 Å in the average Os-N bond lengths of the ground and excited states. Theoretical calculations using a recently developed DFT-based approach support the measured electronic structures and further identify the nature of the molecular orbitals that contribute to the main absorption bands in the XANES spectra.

Carrier motion in as-spun and annealed P3HT:PCBM blends revealed by ultrafast optical electric field probing and Monte Carlo simulations.

Charge transport dynamics in solar cell devices based on as-spun and annealed P3HT:PCBM films are compared using ultrafast time-resolved optical probing of the electric field by means of field-induced second harmonic generation. The results show that charge carriers drift about twice as far during the first 3 ns after photogeneration in a device where the active layer has been thermally annealed. The carrier dynamics were modelled using Monte-Carlo simulations and good agreement between experimental and simulated drift dynamics was obtained using identical model parameters for both cells, but with different average PCBM and polymer domain sizes. The calculations suggest that small domain sizes in as-spun samples limit the carrier separation distance disabling their escape from geminate recombination.

Highly asymmetrical porphyrins with enhanced push-pull character for dye-sensitized solar cells.

A porphyrin π-system has been modulated by enhancing the push-pull character with highly asymmetrical substitution for dye-sensitized solar cells for the first time. Namely, both two diarylamino moieties as a strong electron-donating group and one carboxyphenylethynyl moiety as a strong electron-withdrawing, anchoring group were introduced into the meso-positions of the porphyrin core in a lower symmetrical manner. As a result of the improved light-harvesting property as well as high electron distribution in the anchoring group of LUMO, a push-pull-enhanced, porphyrin-sensitized solar cell exhibited more than 10% power conversion efficiency, which exceeded that of a representative highly efficient porphyrin (i.e., YD2)-sensitized solar cell under optimized conditions. The rational molecular design concept based on highly asymmetric, push-pull substitution will open the possibilities of further improving cell performance in organic solar cells.

Control of the size and shape of TiO2 nanoparticles in restricted media.

Template-capped TiO2 nanostructures have been synthesized. In certain template conditions, TiO2 hexagons are found to form. These hexagonal structures can be effectively sensitized by fluorescein dye without any change in the protonation state of the dye. Bare TiO2 nanoparticles are not so useful for sensitization with dyes like fluorescein as they alter the dye protonation state. The novelty of this work is twofold-the hitherto elusive hexagonal phase of TiO2 nanoparticles has been stabilized and the synthesis of TiO2 in the rutile phase has been achieved under mild conditions.