Dissociable brain correlates for depression, anxiety, dissociation, and somatization in depersonalization-derealization disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The cerebral mechanisms of traits associated with depersonalization-derealization disorder (DPRD) remain poorly understood. METHOD: Happy and sad emotion expressions were presented to DPRD and non-referred control (NC) subjects in an implicit event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) design, and correlated with self report scales reflecting typical co-morbidities of DPRD: depression, dissociation, anxiety, somatization. RESULTS: Significant differences between the slopes of the two groups were observed for somatization in the right temporal operculum (happy) and ventral striatum, bilaterally (sad). Discriminative regions for symptoms of depression were the right pulvinar (happy) and left amygdala (sad). For dissociation, discriminative regions were the left mesial inferior temporal gyrus (happy) and left supramarginal gyrus (sad). For state anxiety, discriminative regions were the left inferior frontal gyrus (happy) and parahippocampal gyrus (sad). For trait anxiety, discriminative regions were the right caudate head (happy) and left superior temporal gyrus (sad). Discussion The ascertained brain regions are in line with previous findings for the respective traits. The findings suggest separate brain systems for each trait. CONCLUSION: Our results do not justify any bias for a certain nosological category in DPRD.

Neural response to specific components of fearful faces in healthy and schizophrenic adults.

Perception of fearful faces is associated with functional activation of cortico-limbic structures, which has been found altered in individuals with psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, autism and major depression. The objective of this study was to isolate the brain response to the features of standardized fearful faces by incorporating principal component analysis (PCA) into the analysis of neuroimaging data of healthy volunteers and individuals with schizophrenia. At the first stage, the visual characteristics of morphed fearful facial expressions (FEEST, Young et al., 2002) were classified with PCA, which produced seven orthogonal factors, with some of them related to emotionally salient facial features (eyes, mouth, brows) and others reflecting non-salient facial features. Subsequently, these PCA-based factors were included into the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis of 63 healthy volunteers and 32 individuals with schizophrenia performing a task that involved implicit processing of FEEST stimuli. In healthy volunteers, significant neural response was found to visual characteristics of eyes, mouth or brows. In individuals with schizophrenia, PCA-based analysis enabled us to identify several significant clusters of activation that were not detected by the standard approach. These clusters were implicated in processing of visual and emotional information and were attributable to the perception of eyes and brows. PCA-based analysis could be useful in isolating brain response to salient facial features in psychiatric populations.

Amygdala activation to masked happy facial expressions.

The amygdala has a key role in automatic non-conscious processing of emotions. Highly salient emotional stimuli elicit amygdala activity, and happy faces are among the most rapidly perceived facial expressions. In backward masking paradigms, an image is presented briefly and then masked by another stimulus. However, reports of amygdala responses to masked happy faces have been mixed. In the present study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine amygdala activation to masked happy, sad, and neutral facial expressions. Masked happy faces elicited greater amygdala activation bilaterally as compared to masked sad faces. Our findings indicate that the amygdala is highly responsive to non-consciously perceived happy facial expressions.

Limbic and prefrontal responses to facial emotion expressions in depersonalization.

Depersonalization disorder, characterized by emotional detachment, has been associated with increased prefrontal cortical and decreased autonomic activity to emotional stimuli. Event-related fMRI with simultaneous measurements of skin conductance levels occurred in nine depersonalization disorder patients and 12 normal controls to neutral, mild and intense happy and sad facial expressions. Patients, but not controls, showed decreases in subcortical limbic activity to increasingly intense happy and sad facial expressions, respectively. For both happy and sad expressions, negative correlations between skin conductance measures in bilateral dorsal prefrontal cortices occurred only in depersonalization disorder patients. Abnormal decreases in limbic activity to increasingly intense emotional expressions, and increases in dorsal prefrontal cortical activity to emotionally arousing stimuli may underlie the emotional detachment of depersonalization disorder.

Recognition accuracy and response bias to happy and sad facial expressions in patients with major depression.

Impaired facial expression recognition has been associated with features of major depression, which could underlie some of the difficulties in social interactions in these patients. Patients with major depressive disorder and age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers judged the emotion of 100 facial stimuli displaying different intensities of sadness and happiness and neutral expressions presented for short (100 ms) and long (2,000 ms) durations. Compared with healthy volunteers, depressed patients demonstrated subtle impairments in discrimination accuracy and a predominant bias away from the identification as happy of mildly happy expressions. The authors suggest that, in depressed patients, the inability to accurately identify subtle changes in facial expression displayed by others in social situations may underlie the impaired interpersonal functioning.

COMT Val158Met × SLC6A4 5-HTTLPR interaction impacts on gray matter volume of regions supporting emotion processing.

There have been several reports on the association between the Val(158)Met genetic polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, as well as the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) of the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4), and frontolimbic region volumes, which have been suggested to underlie individual differences in emotion processing or susceptibility to emotional disorders. However, findings have been somewhat inconsistent. This study used diffeomorphic anatomic registration through exponentiated Lie algebra (DARTEL) whole-brain voxel-based morphometry to study the genetic effects of COMT Val(158)Met and SLC6A4 5-HTTLPR, as well as their interaction, on the regional gray matter volumes of a sample of 91 healthy volunteers. An interaction of COMT Val(158)Met × SLC6A4 5-HTTLPR genotypes with gray matter volume was found in bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, vermis of cerebellum and right putamen/insula. In particular, the gray matter volume in these regions was smaller in individuals who were both COMT-Met and 5-HTTLPR-S carriers, or both COMT-Val and 5-HTTLPR-L homozygotes, as compared with individuals with intermediate combinations of alleles. The interaction of COMT Val(158)Met and SLC6A4 5-HTTLPR adds to the understanding of individual differences in emotion processing.

Somatization severity associated with postero-medial complex structures.

Somatisation is a frequent problem in various psychiatric disorders, yet the cerebral mechanisms of somatisation remain unexamined. To test if somatisation is susceptible to emotional states, we investigated relationships between somatisation severity, neural effective connectivity, and autonomic responses to emotional facial expressions. Volunteering participants (N = 20) were presented with facial expressions of happy and sad emotion at three intensity levels (0%-50%-100%) in a fast implicit ER-fMRI design with concurrent derivation of skin conductance levels (SCL). Self-reported somatisation severity as assessed with Rief's SOMS-2 index was correlated with neural response controlling for other clinical traits to ascertain brain bases of somatisation. Regression analyses estimated effective connectivity of main clusters so determined with peripheral autonomic responses. Regions in which magnitude of activity correlated with somatisation severity consisted in both happy and sad conditions of the anterior ventral precuneus (BA7), along with posterior cingulate gyrus (PCC, BA23, sad condition) and anteromedial thalamus (happy condition).

Interoceptive-reflective regions differentiate alexithymia traits in depersonalization disorder.

It is unclear to what degree depersonalization disorder (DPD) and alexithymia share abnormal brain mechanisms of emotional dysregulation. We compared cerebral processing of facial expressions of emotion in individuals with DPD to normal controls (NC). We presented happy and sad emotion expressions in increasing intensities from neutral (0%) through mild (50%) to intense (100%) to DPD and non-referred NC subjects in an implicit event-related fMRI design, and correlated respective brain activations with responses on the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and its three subscales F1-F3. The TAS-20 predicts clinical diagnosis of DPD with a unique variance proportion of 38%. Differential regression analysis was utilized to ascertain brain regions for each alexithymia subscale. Differential regions of total alexithymia severity for happy emotion were the globus pallidus externus; for identifying feelings (TAS-20 F1 subscale), the right anterior insula; for description of feelings (F2), the right dorsal mid-anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 24); and for externally oriented cognitive style (F3), the left paracingulate gyrus (BA 32). For sad emotion, the differential region for the total TAS-20 score was the dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 24); for TAS-20 F1, the left inferior anterior insula; for TAS-20 F2, the right PCC (BA 31); and for TAS-20 F3, the right orbital gyrus (BA 10). Supporting our hypotheses, the ascertained brain regions for TAS-20 subscales subserve interoception, monitoring and reflection of internal states and emotion. The presented analyses provide evidence that alexithymia plays a substantial role in emotional dysregulation in DPD, presumably based on restrictions in interoception.

Emotion perception and functional outcome in schizophrenia: the importance of negative valence and fear.

A substantial body of work has demonstrated that persons with schizophrenia have a deficit in the perception of emotional stimuli. More recently this deficit has been linked to poor functional outcomes (FO) in this group. The current research investigated the perception of emotional stimuli in a group of 64 schizophrenia patients and 65 matched healthy controls. In the patient group, across two different emotion perception tasks and a social perception task, small deficits were found in the perception of negative, positive and neutrally valenced stimuli. Only the ability to perceive negative and neutrally valenced stimuli significantly correlated with a set of FO measures in the patients, with one task indicating these associations were strongest for the perception of fear. Subsequent regression modelling, controlling for the effects of symptomatology, demonstrated that for each of the three tasks, the measure of negative valence perception accounted for a similar but small amount (4%) of the variance seen in the functional status of the patients.

The McCollough effect and facial emotion discrimination in patients with schizophrenia and their unaffected relatives.

Abnormalities in visual processing have been found consistently in schizophrenia patients, including deficits in early visual processing, perceptual organization, and facial emotion recognition. There is however no consensus as to whether these abnormalities represent heritable illness traits and what their contribution is to psychopathology. Fifty patients with schizophrenia, 61 of their first-degree healthy relatives, and 50 psychiatrically healthy volunteers were tested with regard to facial affect (FA) discrimination and susceptibility to develop the color-contingent illusion [the McCollough Effect (ME)]. Both patients and relatives demonstrated significantly lower accuracy in FA discrimination compared with controls. There was also a significant effect of familiality: Participants from the same families had more similar accuracy scores than those who belonged to different families. Experiments with the ME showed that schizophrenia patients required longer time to develop the illusion than relatives and controls, which indicated poor visual adaptation in schizophrenia. Relatives were marginally slower than controls. There was no significant association between the measures of FA discrimination accuracy and ME in any of the participant groups. Facial emotion discrimination was associated with the degree of interpersonal problems, as measured by the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire in relatives and healthy volunteers, whereas the ME was associated with the perceptual-cognitive symptoms of schizotypy and positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Our results support the heritability of FA discrimination deficits as a trait and indicate visual adaptation abnormalities in schizophrenia, which are symptom related.

Emotion processing in schizophrenia: fMRI study of patients treated with risperidone long-acting injections or conventional depot medication.

We employed two event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging tasks using the pictures of mild and intense facial emotions of fear or happiness. The sample comprised 16 chronic schizophrenia patients treated with risperidone long-acting injections (RLAI), 16 patients treated with conventional antipsychotic depots (CONV) and 16 healthy controls (HC). The HC and RLAI groups demonstrated greater activation in the left amygdala in response to intensively fearful faces, and in right cerebellum to intensively happy faces compared with CONV patients. The CONV group demonstrated under-activation in the right temporal pole in response to intensively happy faces (compared with HC) and over-activation in ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) in response to both intensively happy and fearful expressions, compared with HC and RLAI groups. Our results suggest that networks implicated in the allocation of attentional resources (VMPFC) and emotion processing (amygdala, cerebellum) are differentially affected in patients on CONV versus RLAI.

Emerging treatments in the management of bipolar disorder - focus on risperidone long acting injection.

Bipolar disorder is a life-long psychiatric illness characterized by a high frequency of relapses and substantial societal costs. Almost half of the patients are prescribed second generation antipsychotics for treatment of manic states, or as the maintenance therapy. Risperidone long acting injection (RLAI) as a monotherapy or as adjunctive therapy to lithium or valproate for the maintenance treatment of bipolar I disorder was approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in United States in May 2009. In this review we will consider the aspects of pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, metabolism, safety and tolerability, and clinical trials focusing on the efficacy of RLAI in bipolar disorder. The patients' perspective and attitudes to long-acting injections will also be discussed.

Depression is associated with increased sensitivity to signals of disgust: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

Emotions of fear and disgust are related to core symptoms of depression. The neurobiological mechanisms of these associations are poorly understood. This functional magnetic resonance imaging study aimed at examining the Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response to facial expressions of fear and disgust in patients with major depressive disorder. Nine patients in an episode of major depression and nine healthy controls underwent two functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments where they judged the gender of facial identities displaying different degrees (mild, strong) of fear or disgust, intermixed with non-emotional faces. Compared with healthy controls, patients with depression demonstrated greater activation in left insula, left orbito-frontal gyrus, left middle/inferior temporal gyrus, and right middle/inferior temporal gyrus to expressions of strong disgust. Depressed patients also demonstrated reduced activation in left inferior parietal lobe to mildly fearful faces. Enhanced activation to facial expressions of disgust may reflect an emotion processing bias that suggests high relevance of emotion of disgust to depression.

Cognitive inhibition and working memory in unipolar depression.

BACKGROUND: Over the past decade, evidence has accumulated to suggest that people suffering from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) present impairment in attention, working memory, executive function, including cognitive inhibition, problem- and task-planning. The aim of the current study was to assess inhibitory mechanisms within working memory with emotionally neutral material in a group of patients suffering from MDD. We hypothesized that impairment in cognitive inhibition is global and not only due to the emotional valence of the stimuli employed for the tasks. METHODS: Twenty patients with MDD (DSM-IV) and 20 healthy controls were recruited. To assess cognitive inhibition, we used neutral material, in the form of the Prose Distraction Task (PDT) (Connelly SL, 1991), Trail Making Test (TMT), Modified Card Sorting Test (MCST), Rule Shift Cards (RSC), Stroop test and Hayling Sentence Completion test (HSC). The Modified 6 elements test, the Brixton Spatial Anticipation test, the dual task performance and the verbal fluencies test were also used to assess other executive function such as flexibility, planning tasks and memory. RESULTS: Individuals with depression showed impairment in cognitive inhibition. They made more errors on the PDT, alongside slower response times. Slower response times were also observed on the Stroop, TMT and RSC. The MDD group made more errors in HSC and performed worse than controls in the semantic part of verbal fluency and Modified 6 elements tasks. The impairment of access function was significantly associated with the level of depression. CONCLUSION: Depressed patients showed inability to inhibit neutral information access to working memory, restrain and delete irrelevant information. This impairment in cognitive inhibition could underlie cognitive slowness and attentional deficits in depression.

Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on neural activation during emotional processing.

CONTEXT: Cannabis use can both increase and reduce anxiety in humans. The neurophysiological substrates of these effects are unknown. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of 2 main psychoactive constituents of Cannabis sativa (Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol [Delta9-THC] and cannabidiol [CBD]) on regional brain function during emotional processing. DESIGN: Subjects were studied on 3 separate occasions using an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging paradigm while viewing faces that implicitly elicited different levels of anxiety. Each scanning session was preceded by the ingestion of either 10 mg of Delta9-THC, 600 mg of CBD, or a placebo in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design. PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen healthy, English-native, right-handed men who had used cannabis 15 times or less in their life. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Regional brain activation (blood oxygenation level-dependent response), electrodermal activity (skin conductance response [SCR]), and objective and subjective ratings of anxiety. RESULTS: Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol increased anxiety, as well as levels of intoxication, sedation, and psychotic symptoms, whereas there was a trend for a reduction in anxiety following administration of CBD. The number of SCR fluctuations during the processing of intensely fearful faces increased following administration of Delta9-THC but decreased following administration of CBD. Cannabidiol attenuated the blood oxygenation level-dependent signal in the amygdala and the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex while subjects were processing intensely fearful faces, and its suppression of the amygdalar and anterior cingulate responses was correlated with the concurrent reduction in SCR fluctuations. Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol mainly modulated activation in frontal and parietal areas. CONCLUSIONS: Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and CBD had clearly distinct effects on the neural, electrodermal, and symptomatic response to fearful faces. The effects of CBD on activation in limbic and paralimbic regions may contribute to its ability to reduce autonomic arousal and subjective anxiety, whereas the anxiogenic effects of Delta9-THC may be related to effects in other brain regions.

Cerebral and autonomic responses to emotional facial expressions in depersonalisation disorder.

BACKGROUND: Depersonalisation disorder is characterised by emotion suppression, but the cerebral mechanisms of this symptom are not yet fully understood. AIMS: To compare brain activation and autonomic responses of individuals with the disorder and healthy controls. METHOD: Happy and sad emotion expressions in increasing intensities (neutral to intense) were presented in an implicit event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) design with simultaneous measurement of autonomic responses. RESULTS: Participants with depersonalisation disorder showed fMRI signal decreases, whereas the control group showed signal increases in response to emotion intensity increases in both happy and sad expressions. The analysis of evoked haemodynamic responses from regions exhibiting functional connectivity between central and autonomic nervous systems indicated that in depersonalisation disorder initial modulations of haemodynamic response occurred significantly earlier (2 s post-stimulus) than in the control group (4-6 s post-stimulus). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that fMRI signal decreases are possible correlates of emotion suppression in depersonalisation disorder.

The effect of long-acting risperidone on working memory in schizophrenia: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

Cognitive abnormalities represent an important therapeutic target in the treatment of schizophrenia. Working memory deficits are among the core abnormalities and affect social functioning. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine cortical systems supporting working memory in patients with schizophrenia treated with risperidone long-acting injections (RLAIs) versus those on conventional depot medication (CONV). Sixteen patients on RLAI, 16 patients on CONV matched for clinical symptoms and other illness variables, and 8 HCs performed an n-back task (1-, 2-, 3-back) in the scanner. The level of performance decreased with increasing memory load, which was particularly evident in the CONV group. Patients on RLAI and controls demonstrated task-dependent decreases in activation in medial PFC, whereas the CONV group overactivated that region. The CONV group also showed underactivation of VLPFC compared with controls under conditions of increasing memory load, with the RLAI group showing an activation pattern not significantly different from either group. We conclude that RLAI may contribute to normalization of brain activation in regions involved in working memory functioning in people with chronic schizophrenia.

Human attachment security is mediated by the amygdala: evidence from combined fMRI and psychophysiological measures.

The neural basis of human attachment security remains unexamined. Using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and simultaneous recordings of skin conductance levels, we measured neural and autonomic responses in healthy adult individuals during a semantic conceptual priming task measuring human attachment security "by proxy". Performance during a stress but not a neutral prime condition was associated with response in bilateral amygdalae. Furthermore, levels of activity within bilateral amygdalae were highly positively correlated with attachment insecurity and autonomic response during the stress prime condition. We thereby demonstrate a key role of the amygdala in mediating autonomic activity associated with human attachment insecurity.

A preferential increase in the extrastriate response to signals of danger.

This study examined neural responses in nine right-handed healthy individuals while they viewed mild and intense expressions of four emotions (fear, disgust, happiness, and sadness) contrasted with neutral faces in four event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments. Orthogonal polynomial trend analysis revealed a significant linear increase in the fusiform extrastriate cortical response to increasing intensities of all four emotional expressions, which was significantly greater to increasing intensities of fear and disgust than happiness and sadness, and a significant linear decrease in response to sadness in another extrastriate region. The amygdala was activated by high-intensity fearful expressions, consistent with findings from previous studies, and by low- but not high-intensity sad expressions. Significant linear increases in response to increasing intensities of fear, disgust, and happiness occurred within the hippocampus, anterior insula, and putamen, respectively. Conversely, significant linear decreases in hippocampal and putamen responses occurred to increasing intensities of sadness. We provide the first demonstration of differential increases in extrastriate and limbic responses to signals of increasing danger than to those of other emotions, and significant decreases in these responses to signals of increasing sadness in others. We suggest that this differential pattern of response to different categories of emotional signals allows the preferential direction of visual attention to signals of imminent danger than to other, less-salient emotional stimuli.