The Efficacy of Coronary Sinus Reducer in Patients with Refractory Angina: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background: Refractory angina is a frequently encountered phenomenon in patients with coronary artery disease, often presenting therapeutic challenges to the clinical cardiologist. Novel treatment methods have been explored in this direction, with the coronary sinus reducer (CSR) being among the most extensively-investigated. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of the literature for studies assessing the efficacy of CSR in patients with refractory angina. The primary endpoints of interest were procedural success and the improvement in angina according to the Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) by at least one class. Secondary endpoints were the rate of periprocedural adverse events, the improvement by at least 2 CCS classes, and the mean change in CCS class. A random-effects meta-analysis of proportions (procedural success, improvement by ≥ 1 or ≥ 2 classes, periprocedural adverse events) or means (mean CCS class change) were performed. I 2 was chosen as the metric for between-study heterogeneity. Publication bias was assessed by the inspection of funnel plots and Egger's regression test. We examined the risk of bias according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Results: From a total of 515 studies identified from the original search, 12 studies were finally included for data extraction. Based on their meta-analysis, we observed a high CSR procedural success (98%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 96 to 99%) with a low rate of periprocedural complications (6%, 95% CI 5 to 7%), while most patients exhibited an improvement by at least 1 CCS class (75%, 95% CI 66 to 83%) after the intervention. A significant proportion of patients demonstrated an improvement by at least 2 CCS classes (39%, 95% CI 34 to 45%), with a mean change of -1.24 CCS class (95% CI -1.40 to -1.08). Conclusions: CSR is associated with high implantation success rates and significant improvements in angina symptoms for patients with refractory angina.

Targeting the Gut Microbiome to Treat Cardiometabolic Disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Cardiometabolic diseases, which include obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, constitute a worldwide health crisis of unparalleled proportions. The human gut microbiota has emerged as a prominent topic of inquiry in the search for novel treatment techniques. This review summarizes current research on the potential of addressing the gut microbiota to treat cardiometabolic disease. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent studies have highlighted a complex link between the gut microbiota and host physiology, shedding light on the several processes through which gut microorganisms impact metabolic health, inflammation, and cardiovascular function. Furthermore, a growing corpus of research is available on microbiome-based therapies such as dietary interventions, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation. These therapies show promise as methods for reshaping the gut microbiota and, as a result, improving cardiometabolic outcomes. However, hurdles remain, ranging from the intricacies of microbiome research to the necessity for tailored treatments that take individual microbial variations into consideration, emphasizing the significance of furthering research to bridge the gap between microbiome science and clinical practice. The gut microbiome is a beacon of hope for improving the management of cardiometabolic disease in the age of precision medicine, since its association with their pathophysiology is constantly being unraveled and strengthened. Available studies point to the potential of gut microbiome-based therapeutics, which remains to be tested in appropriately designed clinical trials. Further preclinical research is, however, essential to provide answers to the existing obstacles, with the ultimate goal of enhancing patient care.

Whispers of the Cath lab: "Cases we would rather forget".

In the dynamic field of interventional cardiology, significant strides have been made in reducing periprocedural complications. Echocardiography, particularly transesophageal echocardiography, plays a key role in ensuring the safety and success of structural heart interventions. Its real-time imaging capabilities allow for precise monitoring of device positioning, deployment, and procedural outcomes. By adhering to established imaging protocols and acquiring standard imaging planes, periprocedural echocardiography has become an essential tool for the successful performance of many structural heart interventions. In this manuscript, we present a series of unusual yet significant complications that we encountered during structural interventional procedures in our catheter laboratory. These complications, detected through echocardiography, underscore the critical role of imaging guidance in recognizing, and addressing unforeseen challenges, such as device malposition, thrombus formation in cardiac chambers during structural heart interventions, and cardiac tamponade during transcatheter mitral valve procedures. Through these cases, we highlight the effectiveness of transesophageal echocardiography in promptly identifying complications, allowing for timely intervention and resolution.

Coronary Plaque Erosion: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

Plaque erosion (PE), a distinct etiology of acute coronary syndromes (ACSs), is often overshadowed by plaque ruptures (PRs). Concerning its epidemiology, PE has garnered increasing recognition, with recent studies revealing its prevalence to be approximately 40% among ACS patients, challenging earlier assumptions based on autopsy data. Notably, PE exhibits distinct epidemiological features, preferentially affecting younger demographics, particularly women, and often manifesting as a non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. There are seasonal variations, with PE events being less common in winter, potentially linked to physiological changes and cholesterol solidification, while peaking in summer, warranting further investigation. Moving to molecular mechanisms, PE presents a unique profile characterized by a lesser degree of inflammation compared to PR, with endothelial shear stress emerging as a plausible molecular mechanism. Neutrophil activation, toll-like receptor-2 pathways, and hyaluronidase 2 expression are among the factors implicated in PE pathophysiology, underscoring its multifactorial nature. Advancements in intravascular imaging diagnostics, particularly optical coherence tomography and near-infrared spectroscopy coupled with intravascular ultrasound, offer unprecedented insights into plaque composition and morphology. Artificial intelligence algorithms show promise in enhancing diagnostic accuracy and streamlining image interpretation, augmenting clinician decision-making. Therapeutically, the management of PE evolves, with studies exploring less invasive approaches such as antithrombotic therapy without stenting, particularly in cases identified early through intravascular imaging. Additionally, the potential role of drug-coated balloons in reducing thrombus burden and minimizing future major adverse cardiovascular events warrants further investigation. Looking ahead, the integration of advanced imaging modalities, biomarkers, and artificial intelligence promises to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of coronary PE, ushering in a new era of personalized and precise cardiovascular care.

The Role of Inflammasomes in Heart Failure.

Heart failure (HF) poses a significant world health challenge due to the increase in the aging population and advancements in cardiac care. In the pathophysiology of HF, the inflammasome has been correlated with the development, progression, and complications of HF disease. Discovering biomarkers linked to inflammasomes enhances understanding of HF diagnosis and prognosis. Directing inflammasome signaling emerges as an innovative therapeutic strategy for managing HF. The present review aims to delve into this inflammatory cascade, understanding its role in the development of HF, its potential role as biomarker, as well as the prospects of modulating inflammasomes as a therapeutic approach for HF.

The Association of Depression With QT Duration: A Comparison Between Individuals Younger or Older Than 65 Years.

OBJECTIVE: The electrocardiogram-derived corrected QT (QTc) interval is an indicator of cardiac autonomic activity that has been proposed as a biological measure to investigate the interplay between depression and cardiovascular diseases. This study assesses whether depression is associated with a longer QTc interval across age groups. METHODS: Assessment of depressive symptoms was performed in 1637 participants of the cross-sectional Corinthia study with the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale in those younger than 65 years (group 1) and with the Geriatric Depression Scale in elderly individuals (≥65 years, group 2). The QT interval was obtained from electrocardiogram recordings and corrected for heart rate (QTc). RESULTS: Individuals in group 1 with depression were predominantly women and had a higher prevalence of coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus. Group 1 individuals with depression had longer QTc duration (no depression versus depression, 389.3 [27.0] versus 401.1 [32.9] milliseconds; p < .001) and percentage of abnormal QTc (no depression versus depression, 2.0% versus 10.8%; p = .001) compared with those without depression. Elderly individuals (group 2) had similar values of QTc and percentage of abnormal QTc irrespective of depression status. Even after adjustment for known QT-prolonging factors, the presence of depression in younger individuals was associated with an increased QTc by 11.1 milliseconds and with an approximately 10.6-fold higher prevalence of abnormal QTc duration. CONCLUSIONS: Depression was associated with a longer QTc interval especially in individuals younger than 65 years. These findings may indicate an interrelationship between depression and autonomic dysregulation as potential risk factors for cardiovascular disease and sudden cardiac death.

Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Perspectives of Intradialytic Hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with end-stage renal disease on chronic hemodialysis (HD) may encounter numerous HD-associated complications, including intradialytic hypertension (IDHYPER). Although blood pressure (BP) follows a predictable course in the post-HD period, BP levels during the session may vary across the individuals. Typically, a decline in BP is noted during HD, but a significant proportion of patients exhibit a paradoxical elevation. SUMMARY: Several studies have been conducted to understand the complexity of IDHYPER, but much remains to be elucidated in the future. This review article aimed to present the current evidence regarding the proposed definitions, the pathophysiologic background, the extent and clinical implications of IDHYPER, as well as the possible therapeutic options that have emerged from clinical studies. KEY MESSAGES: IDHYPER is noted in approximately 15% of individuals undergoing HD. Several definitions have been proposed, with a systolic BP rise >10 mm Hg from pre- to post-dialysis in the hypertensive range in at least four out of six consecutive HD treatments being suggested by the latest Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. Concerning its pathophysiology, extracellular fluid overload is a crucial determinant, with endothelial dysfunction, sympathetic nervous system overdrive, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation, and electrolyte alterations being important contributors. Although its association with ambulatory BP in the interdialytic period is controversial, IDHYPER is associated with adverse cardiovascular events and mortality. Moving to its management, the antihypertensive drugs of choice should ideally be nondialyzable with proven cardiovascular and mortality benefits. Finally, rigorous clinical and objective assessment of extracellular fluid volume is essential. Volume-overloaded patients should be instructed about the importance of sodium restriction, while physicians ought to alter HD settings toward a greater dry weight reduction. The use of a low-sodium dialysate and isothermic HD could also be considered on a case-by-case basis since no randomized evidence is currently available.

Impaired left ventricular deformation and ventricular-arterial coupling in post-COVID-19: association with autonomic dysregulation.

Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) has extended implications namely the long COVID-19 syndrome. We assessed over-time changes in left ventricular (LV) function, aortic stiffness, autonomic function, and ventricular-arterial coupling (VAC) in post-COVID-19 patients. We followed 34 post-COVID-19 subjects, up to 6 months post-hospital discharge. Subjects without COVID-19 served as control. We evaluated LV global longitudinal strain (LV-GLS), arterial stiffness [carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cf-PWV)], and heart rate variability -standard deviation of normal RR intervals (SDNN). VAC was estimated as the ratio of cf-PWV to LV-GLS. Post-COVID-19 individuals (1-month post-hospital discharge) presented with impaired LV-GLS [-18.4%(3.1) vs. -22.0%(2.7), P < 0.001], cf-PWV [12.1 m/s (3.2) vs. 9.6 m/s (1.9), P < 0.001], SDNN [111.3 ms (22.6) vs. 147.2 ms (14.0), P < 0.001], and VAC [-0.68 (0.22) vs. -0.44 (0.10), P < 0.001] compared to control. LV-GLS, SDNN, and VAC improved at the 6-month follow-up however they did not reach control levels. In post-COVID-19 subjects, SDNN and VAC were correlated at the 1-month (R = 0.499, P = 0.003) and 6-month (R = 0.372, P = 0.04) follow-up. Long COVID-19 syndrome was associated with impaired LV-GLS, SDNN, and VAC. Post-COVID-19 subjects presented with autonomic dysregulation associated with aortic stiffness, ventricular-arterial impairment, and LV dysfunction, even 6-months post-hospital discharge. These abnormalities may be related to the presence of long COVID-19 syndrome.

The Role of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis: Pathophysiologic Mechanisms and Treatment Considerations.

Atherosclerotic diseases are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, despite the recent diagnostic and therapeutic advances. A thorough understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms is thus essential to improve the care of affected individuals. Macrophages are crucial mediators of the atherosclerotic cascade, but their role has not been fully elucidated. The two main subtypes, tissue-resident and monocyte-derived macrophages, have distinct functions that contribute to atherosclerosis development or regression. Since polarization of macrophages to an M2 phenotype and induction of macrophage autophagy have been demonstrated to be atheroprotective, targeting these pathways could represent an appealing approach. Interestingly, macrophage receptors could act as drug targets, as seen in recent experimental studies. Last but not least, macrophage-membrane-coated carriers have been investigated with encouraging results.

Exploring the Impact of Cyanidin-3-Glucoside on Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Investigating New Mechanisms for Emerging Interventions.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G), the most widely distributed anthocyanin (ACN) in edible fruits, has been proposed for several bioactivities, including anti-inflammatory, neuro-protective, antimicrobial, anti-viral, anti-thrombotic and epigenetic actions. However, habitual intake of ACNs and C3G may vary widely among populations, regions, and seasons, among individuals with different education and financial status. The main point of C3G absorption occurs in the small and large bowel. Therefore, it has been supposed that the treating properties of C3G might affect inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), such as ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). IBDs develop through complex inflammatory pathways and sometimes may be resistant to conventional treatment strategies. C3G presents antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, and antimicrobial effects useful for IBD management. In particular, different studies have demonstrated that C3G inhibits NF-κB pathway activation. In addition, C3G activates the Nrf2 pathway. On the other hand, it modulates the expression of antioxidant enzymes and cytoprotective proteins, such as NAD(P)H, superoxide dismutase, heme-oxygenase (HO-1), thioredoxin, quinone reductase-oxide 1 (NQO1), catalase, glutathione S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase. Interferon I and II pathways are downregulated by C3G inhibiting interferon-mediating inflammatory cascades. Moreover, C3G reduces reactive species and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as C reactive protein, interferon-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12p70, and IL-17A in UC and CD patients. Finally, C3G modulates gut microbiota by inducing an increase in beneficial gut bacteria and increasing microbial abundances, thus mitigating dysbiosis. Thus, C3G presents activities that may have potential therapeutic and protective actions against IBD. Still, in the future, clinical trials should be designed to investigate the bioavailability of C3G in IBD patients and the proper therapeutic doses through different sources, aiming to the standardization of the exact clinical outcome and efficacy of C3G.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Echocardiographic Parameters of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

The cardiovascular implications of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) have been associated with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). The purpose of this review was to conduct a bibliographic search regarding the correlation between NAFLD and the echocardiographic parameters of left ventricular diastolic function. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed and Embase for original research data reporting on the association of NAFLD with diastolic function markers [E/e', left atrial volume index (LAVi), left ventricular mass index (LVMi)]. Meta-analysis was performed using the meta and dmetar packages in R studio v.1.4.1106, with p < 0.05 values being considered significant. Results are expressed as the standardized mean difference (SMD) for continuous variables and as the odds ratio (OR) for categorical variables, with respective 95% confidence intervals (CI). Heterogeneity between studies was expressed with index Ι2. From the preliminary search, 2619 articles were found from which 31 studies were included in the final statistical analysis. The meta-analysis of 8 studies which reported on the prevalence of diastolic dysfunction showed that it was increased in patients with NAFLD (OR: 2.07, 95% CI 1.24-3.44 with p = 0.01, I2: 80% with p < 0.01). The meta-analysis of 21 studies showed significantly higher E/e' in NAFLD patients (SMD 1.02, 95% CI 0.43-1.61 with p < 0.001, I2: 97% with p < 0.001). Individuals with NAFLD had increased LAVi (SMD: 0.87, 95% CI 0.38-1.37 with p < 0.001, I2: 96% with p < 0.001) and LVMi (SMD: 0.89, 95% CI 0.31-1.48 with p = 0.003, I2: 100% with p < 0.001). To conclude, in the meta-analysis of 31 observational studies, NAFLD patients were found to have affected left ventricular diastolic function, supporting the hypothesis of NAFLD being associated with HFpEF.

Lipoprotein(a) in Atherosclerotic Diseases: From Pathophysiology to Diagnosis and Treatment.

Lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) is a low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol-like particle bound to apolipoprotein(a). Increased Lp(a) levels are an independent, heritable causal risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) as they are largely determined by variations in the Lp(a) gene (LPA) locus encoding apo(a). Lp(a) is the preferential lipoprotein carrier for oxidized phospholipids (OxPL), and its role adversely affects vascular inflammation, atherosclerotic lesions, endothelial function and thrombogenicity, which pathophysiologically leads to cardiovascular (CV) events. Despite this crucial role of Lp(a), its measurement lacks a globally unified method, and, between different laboratories, results need standardization. Standard antilipidemic therapies, such as statins, fibrates and ezetimibe, have a mediocre effect on Lp(a) levels, although it is not yet clear whether such treatments can affect CV events and prognosis. This narrative review aims to summarize knowledge regarding the mechanisms mediating the effect of Lp(a) on inflammation, atherosclerosis and thrombosis and discuss current diagnostic and therapeutic potentials.

The Role of Melatonin in Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Associated Risk Factors: A New Tool in Our Arsenal?

BACKGROUND: The increasing incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKD), as a consequence of the high prevalence of arterial hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), warrants the need for developing effective treatment approaches. In this regard, the pineal gland-derived hormone melatonin may represent an appealing treatment approach of CKD and its associated risk factors. SUMMARY: Targeting the adverse pathophysiology surrounding CKD and its associated risk factors has been the concept of pharmacologic treatment developed for its management. This review article aimed to present the role of melatonin in this direction, by providing an overview of melatonin's physiology followed by its effect as a therapeutic agent in arterial hypertension and T2DM. KEY MESSAGES: Melatonin, the primary darkness hormone, possesses pleiotropic mechanisms of action which may have important implications in various pathologic states since its receptors are situated across various organ systems. As a treatment tool in arterial hypertension, melatonin may be efficacious in reducing both daytime and nocturnal blood pressure by influencing endothelial function, oxidative stress, the autonomic nervous system, and the renin-angiotensin system. Melatonin may also increase insulin sensitivity and ß-cell function. However, late meal intake may be detrimental in glucose regulation, as consumption close to melatonin peak concentrations may induce hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. This finding may explain the inconsistent glycose regulation achieved with melatonin in clinical trials and meta-analyses. Additionally, the presence of genetic variants to melatonin receptor 2 may predispose to T2DM development. Finally, we present the available preclinical evidence supporting melatonin's efficacy in ameliorating CKD's pathophysiology since melatonin supplementation has not been adequately explored in patients with CKD. The combined use of stem cells with melatonin is an appealing therapeutic approach which ought to be assessed further.

The impact of SGLT2 inhibition on imaging markers of cardiac function: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: The use of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2-Is) has resulted in significant benefits in patients with heart failure irrespective of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and the presence of diabetes mellitus. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the impact of SGLT2-Is on cardiac function indices. METHODS: We conducted a systematic literature search for studies assessing the changes in LVEF, global longitudinal strain (GLS), left ventricular end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), left ventricular end-systolic volume (LVESV), left ventricular mass index (LVMi), left atrial volume index (LAVi), and E/e' following the initiation of an SGLT2-I. RESULTS: A total of 32 studies with 2351 patients were included. SGLT2 inhibition resulted in a significant improvement of LVEF [MD 1.97 (95%CI 0.92, 3.02), p < .01, I2:84%] in patients with heart failure, an increase in GLS [MD 1.17 (95% CI 0.25, 2.10), p < .01], a decrease in LVESV [MD: -3.60 (95% CI -7.02, -0.18), p = .04, I2:9%] while the effect was neutral concerning LVEDV [MD: -3.10 (95% CI -6.76, 0.56), p = .40, I2:4%]. LVMi [MD: -3.99 (95% CI -7.16 to -0.82), p = .01, I2:65%], LAVi [MD: -1.77 (95% CI -2.97, -0.57), p < .01, I2:0%], and E/e' [MD: -1.39 (95% CI -2.04, -0.73), p < .01, I2:55%] were significantly reduced. CONCLUSIONS: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, the use of SGLT2 inhibitors was associated with an improvement in markers of cardiac function, confirming the importance of SGLT2 inhibition towards the reversal of cardiac remodeling.

The association of diabetes mellitus with carotid atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness in the Corinthia study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Evaluation of arterial stiffness and carotid atherosclerotic burden can provide important prognostic information regarding the risk of future cardiovascular events. The aim of this study was to assess these vascular properties in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). METHODS AND RESULTS: In the context of the observational "Corinthia" study, we analyzed 1757 participants with determined DM status. Carotid ultrasonography was performed to evaluate intima-media thickness (cIMT) and carotid plaque burden. Arterial stiffness was estimated via assessment of carotid-to-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV). Individuals with DM had increased mean cIMT, maximum cIMT, carotid plaque burden, and cfPWV compared to those without DM. After multivariable regression analysis, the presence of DM was still associated with significantly increased mean cIMT (by 0.074 mm, p = .004), maximum cIMT (by 0.134 mm, p = .007), cfPWV (by 0.929 m/s, p < .001), and a higher prevalence of carotid plaques (odds ratio 1.52, 95% confidence intervals 1.11, 2.10, p = .01). In a propensity score-matched cohort, mean cIMT, maximum cIMT, and carotid plaque burden were significantly higher in individuals with DM. Analysis according to territory of cIMT measurement displayed substantial differences in left (DM: 1.32 ± 0.78 mm vs. no DM: 1.20 ± 0.66 mm, p = .04) and right carotid bulbs (DM: 1.33 ± 0.82 mm vs. no DM: 1.18 ± 0.69 mm, p = .02) with respect to DM status while non-significant variations were observed in left (DM: 0.98 ± 0.49 mm vs. no DM: 0.91 ± 0.35 mm, p = .06) and right common carotid artery (DM: 0.95 ± 0.50 mm vs. no DM: 0.92 ± 0.40 mm, p = .36). CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes mellitus is associated with increased cfPWV and cIMT, with more pronounced lesions in the carotid bulb.

Overview of infections as an etiologic factor and complication in patients with vasculitides.

Vasculitides, a form of inflammatory autoimmune disease targeting the vessels, constitute an entity with significant morbidity and mortality. Infections have long been associated with vasculitides as a result of the incident immunosuppression following treatment induction and maintenance. Several microbial pathogens have been described as etiologic factors of infections in this patient population according to the type of vessels affected. Intense research has also been recently conducted in the interplay between vasculitides and certain viral infections, namely human immunodeficiency virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Of note, a plethora of scientific evidence is available regarding the role of infections as triggering factors for vasculitides. Among the main mechanisms implicated in this direction are the activation of B and T cells, the direct endothelial insult, the immune complex-mediated vascular injury, and the cell-mediated, type IV hypersensitivity vessel damage. Therefore, this review aims to summarize all the available evidence concerning this bidirectional interplay between infections and vasculitides.

The Impact of Cytokines in Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaque: Current Therapeutic Approaches.

Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic pathological process that involves inflammation together with endothelial dysfunction and lipoprotein dysregulation. Experimental studies during the past decades have established the role of inflammatory cytokines in coronary artery disease, namely interleukins (ILs), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon-γ, and chemokines. Moreover, their value as biomarkers in disease development and progression further enhance the validity of this interaction. Recently, cytokine-targeted treatment approaches have emerged as potential tools in the management of atherosclerotic disease. IL-1ß, based on the results of the CANTOS trial, remains the most validated option in reducing the residual cardiovascular risk. Along the same line, colchicine was also proven efficacious in preventing major adverse cardiovascular events in large clinical trials of patients with acute and chronic coronary syndrome. Other commercially available agents targeting IL-6 (tocilizumab), TNF-α (etanercept, adalimumab, infliximab), or IL-1 receptor antagonist (anakinra) have mostly been assessed in the setting of other inflammatory diseases and further testing in atherosclerosis is required. In the future, potential targeting of the NLRP3 inflammasome, anti-inflammatory IL-10, or atherogenic chemokines could represent appealing options, provided that patient safety is proven to be of no concern.

Telomere Length: A Cardiovascular Biomarker and a Novel Therapeutic Target.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a multifactorial disease with a high prevalence, particularly in developing countries. Currently, the investigation of telomeres as a potential tool for the early detection of the atherosclerotic disease seems to be a promising method. Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences located at the extremities of chromosomes that maintain genetic stability. Telomere length (TL) has been associated with several human disorders and diseases while its attrition rate varies significantly in the population. The rate of TL shortening ranges between 20 and 50 bp and is affected by factors such as the end-replication phenomenon, oxidative stress, and other DNA-damaging agents. In this review, we delve not only into the pathophysiology of TL shortening but also into its association with cardiovascular disease and the progression of atherosclerosis. We also provide current and future treatment options based on TL and telomerase function, trying to highlight the importance of these cutting-edge developments and their clinical relevance.

Factors Associated with Platelet Activation-Recent Pharmaceutical Approaches.

Platelets are at the forefront of human health and disease following the advances in their research presented in past decades. Platelet activation, their most crucial function, although beneficial in the case of vascular injury, may represent the initial step for thrombotic complications characterizing various pathologic states, primarily atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we initially summarize the structural and functional characteristics of platelets. Next, we focus on the process of platelet activation and its associated factors, indicating the potential molecular mechanisms involving inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and miRs. Finally, an overview of the available antiplatelet agents is being portrayed, together with agents possessing off-set platelet-inhibitory actions, while an extensive presentation of drugs under investigation is being given.

Dyslipidemia in Chronic Kidney Disease: Contemporary Concepts and Future Therapeutic Perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an increasingly prevalent disease state met with great morbidity and mortality primarily resulting from the high incidence of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Therapeutic strategies in this patient population aim at controlling modifiable cardiovascular risk factors, including dyslipidemia. SUMMARY: In this review article, we first provide the latest pathophysiologic evidence regarding the altered dyslipidemia pattern in CKD, followed by its contemporary management according to the latest guidelines. Moreover, we present the current progress regarding the emerging therapeutic strategies. Key Messages: The presence of renal impairment leads to alterations in cholesterol structure, metabolism, and reverse transport paired with increased oxidative stress. Statins remain the cornerstone of dyslipidemia management in patients with kidney dysfunction who are at risk for cardiovascular events. However, their efficacy is debatable in end-stage renal disease under renal replacement therapy. Therefore, novel treatment approaches aiming at hypertriglyceridemia, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9, and lipoprotein(a) are under rigorous investigation while the research of gut microbiome might provide additional mechanistic and therapeutic insight.