The early impact of COVID-19 on mental health and community physical health services and their patients' mortality in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough, UK.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 has affected social interaction and healthcare worldwide. METHODS: We examined changes in presentations and referrals to the primary provider of mental health and community health services in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough, UK (population ~0·86 million), plus service activity and deaths. We conducted interrupted time series analyses with respect to the time of UK "lockdown", which was shortly before the peak of COVID-19 infections in this area. We examined changes in standardized mortality ratio for those with and without severe mental illness (SMI). RESULTS: Referrals and presentations to nearly all mental and physical health services dropped at lockdown, with evidence for changes in both supply (service provision) and demand (help-seeking). This was followed by an increase in demand for some services. This pattern was seen for all major forms of presentation to liaison psychiatry services, except for eating disorders, for which there was no evidence of change. Inpatient numbers fell, but new detentions under the Mental Health Act were unchanged. Many services shifted from face-to-face to remote contacts. Excess mortality was primarily in the over-70s. There was a much greater increase in mortality for patients with SMI, which was not explained by ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 has been associated with a system-wide drop in the use of mental health services, with some subsequent return in activity. "Supply" changes may have reduced access to mental health services for some. "Demand" changes may reflect a genuine reduction of need or a lack of help-seeking with pent-up demand. There has been a disproportionate increase in death among those with SMI during the pandemic.

Transcript profiles of long- and short-lived adults implicate protein synthesis in evolved differences in ageing in the nematode Strongyloides ratti.

The nematode Strongyloides ratti shows remarkable phenotypic plasticity in ageing, with parasitic adults living at least 80-times longer than free-living adults. Given that long- and short-lived adults are genetically identical, this plasticity is likely to be due to differences in gene expression. To try and understand how this inter-morph difference in longevity evolved, we compared gene expression in long- and short-lived adults. DNA microarray analysis of long- and short-lived adults identified 32 genes that were up-regulated in long-lived adults, and 96 genes up-regulated in short-lived adults. Strikingly, 38.5% of the genes expressed more in the short-lived morph are predicted to encode ribosomal proteins, compared with only 9% in the long-lived morph. Among the 32 longevity-associated genes there was very little enrichment of genes linked to cellular maintenance. Overall, we have therefore observed a negative correlation between expression of ribosomal protein genes and longevity in S. ratti. Interestingly, engineered reduction of expression of ribosomal protein genes increases lifespan in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Our study therefore suggests that differences in levels of protein synthesis could contribute to evolved differences in animal longevity.

Genes important in the parasitic life of the nematode Strongyloides ratti.

Parasitic nematodes are important pathogens of humans and other animals. The genus Strongyloides has both a parasitic and a free-living adult generation. S. ratti infections of its rat host are negatively affected by the host immune response, such that a month after infection, worms are lost from the hosts. Here we have investigated the changes in parasite gene expression that occur as the anti-S. ratti immune pressure increases. Existing S. ratti expressed sequence tags were used to construct a microarray consisting of 2227 putative genes. This was probed with cDNA prepared from parasites subject to low or high immune pressures. There are significant changes in the gene expression of S. ratti when subject to different immune pressures. Most of the genes whose expression changes have no significant alignment to known genes. These data together with previous S. ratti EST data were then used to identify genes that we hypothesise are central to the parasitic life of S. ratti and, perhaps, other parasitic nematodes. These analyses have identified genes likely to play a key role in the parasitic life of S. ratti; these genes should be the priority for further investigation.

Microarray analysis of gender- and parasite-specific gene transcription in Strongyloides ratti.

The molecular mechanisms by which parasitic nematodes reproduce and have adapted to life within a host are unclear. In the present study, microarray analysis was used to explore differential transcription among the different stages and sexes of Strongyloides ratti, a parasitic nematode of brown rats. Specifically, gender-biased transcription between free-living females and free-living males, and parasitic-biased transcription between parasitic females and free-living females was determined. Of the estimated 3,688 distinct transcripts represented on the microarray, 743 (20%) exhibited male-biased transcription of >1.4-fold (2(0.5)), 689 (19%) female-biased transcription, 418 (11%) parasitic-biased transcription and 305 (8%) free-living-biased transcription. Among those transcripts that exhibited the highest levels of differential transcription, an orthologue of major sperm protein was identified in males, distinct aspartic protease orthologues in either parasitic or in free-living females, and orthologues of hsp-17 chaperone in parasitic females. These 3,688 transcripts were separated into 12 clusters, such that the pattern of transcription between life-stages and biological replicates was similar among transcripts within a cluster and dissimilar between clusters. Using annotation inferred from Caenorhabditis elegans, gene ontology terms over-represented in one or more clusters were identified and showed that female-biased transcription was associated with genes involved in reproductive processes and larval development, male-biased transcription was linked to genes involved in metabolism, and free-living-biased transcription related to genes involved in the regulation of body fluids and response to external stimulus. The association of gene ontology with parasite-biased transcription was less clear. The present findings for S. ratti provide a basis for a detailed exploration of differentially regulated molecules and might assist in the search for novel drug or vaccine targets in parasitic nematodes.

A microarray analysis of gene expression in the free-living stages of the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti.

BACKGROUND: The nematode Strongyloides ratti has two adult phases in its lifecycle: one obligate, female and parasitic and one facultative, dioecious and free-living. The molecular control of the development of this free-living generation remains to be elucidated. RESULTS: We have constructed an S. ratti cDNA microarray and used it to interrogate changes in gene expression during the free-living phase of the S. ratti life-cycle. We have found very extensive differences in gene expression between first-stage larvae (L1) passed in faeces and infective L3s preparing to infect hosts. In L1 stages there was comparatively greater expression of genes involved in growth. We have also compared gene expression in L2 stages destined to develop directly into infective L3s with those destined to develop indirectly into free-living adults. This revealed relatively small differences in gene expression. We find little evidence for the conservation of transcription profiles between S. ratti and S. stercoralis or C. elegans. CONCLUSION: This is the first multi-gene study of gene expression in S. ratti. This has shown that robust data can be generated, with consistent measures of expression within computationally determined clusters and contigs. We find inconsistencies between EST representation data and microarray hybridization data in the identification of genes with stage-specific expression and highly expressed genes. Many of the genes whose expression is significantly different between L1 and iL3s stages are unknown beyond alignments to predicted genes. This highlights the forthcoming challenge in actually determining the role of these genes in the life of S. ratti.

daf-7 and the development of Strongyloides ratti and Parastrongyloides trichosuri.

daf-7 is a key ligand in one of the three pathways that control dauer larva development in Caenorhabditis elegans. Given the similarities between dauer larvae of free-living nematodes and third stage infective larvae of animal parasitic nematodes, we hypothesised that daf-7 may be involved in the development of these infective larvae. To investigate this, we cloned daf-7 orthologues from Strongyloides ratti and Parastrongyloides trichosuri and analysed their RNA level by semi-quantitative RT-PCR during the S. ratti and P. trichosuri life cycles and in a range of in vitro and in vivo conditions. We found that, in both species, the RNA level of daf-7 was low in free-living stages but peaked in the infective L3 (iL3) stage with little or no expression in the parasitic stages. This contrasts with the daf-7 RNA level in C. elegans, which peaks in L1, decreases thereafter, and is absent in dauer larvae. The RNA level of daf-7 in infective larvae was reduced by larval penetration of host skin or development in the host, but not by a shift to the body temperature of the host.

An expressed sequence tag analysis of the life-cycle of the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti.

14,761 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were generated, representing five stages during the parasitic and free-living phases of the life-cycle of the parasitic nematode Strongyloides ratti. These ESTs formed 4152 clusters, of which 97% contained 10 or fewer ESTs and 66% were singletons. These 4152 clusters are likely to represent approximately 20% of S. ratti's genes. The clusters' consensus sequences were used to assign each cluster to one of three databases: (i) Caenorhabditis elegans and C. briggsae sequences; (ii) other nematode sequences; (iii) non-nematode sequences. This approach has identified putative nematode-specific genes, that may be targets for developing approaches for parasitic nematode control. Approximately 25% of the clusters have no significant alignments and may therefore represent novel genes. The EST representation between the libraries was used to analyse stage-specific or -biased expression in silico. This showed that 81% of clusters are present in only one library and 12% are present in any two libraries, indicating substantial stage-specificity of gene expression. The 30-most abundantly expressed clusters were analysed in further detail. Many of these have significantly different parasitic- or free-living-specific or -biased expression. Many of the parasitic-specific genes are, as yet, uncharacterised: one of these represents 25% of all ESTs obtained from the parasitic stage.

Heat shock factor functions at the convergence of the stress response and developmental pathways in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Heat shock factor (HSF) is best characterized as the transcriptional regulator of heat shock protein genes, required by all cells to survive periods of stress. Recent evidence suggests that HSF also functions to regulate the expression of genes involved in growth and development under normal physiological conditions. In this study, we used RNA interference (RNAi) assays to investigate the role of HSF in Caenorhabditis elegans. Exposure of wild-type worms to hsf dsRNAi constructs caused a temperature-sensitive developmental arrest at the L2/L3 stage. At normal growth temperatures, hsf(RNAi) worms that developed to adults were small and scrawny, largely infertile, and showed a significant reduction in life span. These results demonstrate that HSF is required for normal postembryonic development under physiological conditions. Following heat shock, hsf(RNAi) worms were thermosensitive and displayed a significant reduction of hsp16 expression. When hsf(RNAi) was carried out in various dauer-constitutive mutant backgrounds, a dramatic reversal of dauer formation was observed, indicating that HSF is also required in the dauer pathway. In its natural habitat of the soil, where C. elegans is exposed to a constantly fluctuating environment; the ability to integrate the stress response with development may be an essential element of its ecology.

Cloning and expression of two secretory acetylcholinesterases from the bovine lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus.

We describe the molecular cloning, expression and biochemical characterisation of recombinant forms of two secreted acetylcholinesterases from adult Dictyocaulus viviparus. The two variants (designated Dv-ACE-1 and Dv-ACE-2) were 613 and 615 amino acids long and showed 94.7% identity to one another. The highest level of identity to other cholinesterases was with ACE-2 of Caenorhabditis elegans. Dv-ACE-1 and Dv-ACE-2 showed 48.0 and 47.7% identity to C. elegans ACE-2 over 577 amino acids, respectively. The primary structure of both enzymes showed conservation of the catalytic triad and of a tryptophan residue known to be critical for the choline-binding site, but differed in the number of potential glycosylation sites and at one amino acid in the peripheral anionic site. Southern blotting and PCR experiments indicated that the genes encoding these enzymes are distinct. When expressed in Pichia pastoris, the enzymes were active, but differed subtly in their biochemical characteristics. Both enzymes exhibited a preference for acetylcholine as substrate, but differed in the extent of excess substrate inhibition and in their optimal pH for activity. The lack of an obvious carboxy-terminal membrane anchor and the presence of an insertion at the molecular surface were other features which, thus far, appear to be characteristic of parasite secreted acetylcholinesterases.

Biochemical and molecular characterization of two cytidine deaminases in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

Two cytidine deaminases (CDDs) from the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have been cloned and characterized. Both Ce-CDD-1 and Ce-CDD-2 are authentic deaminases and both exhibit RNA-binding activity towards AU-rich templates. In order to study their temporal and spatial expression patterns in the worm, reporter gene constructs were made using approx. 2 kb of upstream sequence. Transfection of C. elegans revealed that both genes localized to the cells of the intestine, although their temporal expression patterns were different. Expression of Ce-cdd-1 peaked in the early larval stages, whereas Ce-cdd-2 was expressed in all life cycle stages examined. RNA-interference (RNAi) assays were performed for both genes, either alone or in combination, but only cdd-2 RNAi produced a consistent visible phenotype. A proportion of eggs laid from these worms were swollen and distorted in shape.

HRP-2, a heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein, is essential for embryogenesis and oogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) have fundamental roles in the posttranscriptional control of gene expression. Here, we describe an hnRNP from Caenorhabditis elegans(HRP-2), which shares significant homology with mammalian hnRNP R, hnRNP Q and ACF, the essential complementation factor in ApoB mRNA editing. All four proteins possess a similar molecular architecture, with three closely linked RNA-binding domains and a C-terminus that contains RG/RGG repeat motifs. An HRP-2::GFP fusion protein was ubiquitously expressed in C. elegans during embryogenesis and subsequent larval development. Expression was also detected in the hermaphrodite gonad using a specific antibody, suggesting that HRP-2 is provided maternally. HRP-2 was predominantly localised to nuclei and analysis of transgenic lines expressing C-terminal deletions of HRP-2 defined a functional nuclear localisation signal. Analysis by RNAi demonstrated that HRP-2 was essential for embryogenesis and fertility. Cell divisions were slower in hrp-2(RNAi) embryos and the majority showed an early embryonic arrest phenotype. Shorter exposure to dsRNA allowed development to the twofold stage and the few embryos that hatched were abnormal. Adult worms that developed from embryos exposed to RNAi were completely sterile due to a failure in oocyte formation. These results demonstrate that HRP-2 or its RNA targets are essential for normal embryonic development and oogenesis in C. elegans.