Tracking of marine predators to protect Southern Ocean ecosystems.

Southern Ocean ecosystems are under pressure from resource exploitation and climate change1,2. Mitigation requires the identification and protection of Areas of Ecological Significance (AESs), which have so far not been determined at the ocean-basin scale. Here, using assemblage-level tracking of marine predators, we identify AESs for this globally important region and assess current threats and protection levels. Integration of more than 4,000 tracks from 17 bird and mammal species reveals AESs around sub-Antarctic islands in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and over the Antarctic continental shelf. Fishing pressure is disproportionately concentrated inside AESs, and climate change over the next century is predicted to impose pressure on these areas, particularly around the Antarctic continent. At present, 7.1% of the ocean south of 40°S is under formal protection, including 29% of the total AESs. The establishment and regular revision of networks of protection that encompass AESs are needed to provide long-term mitigation of growing pressures on Southern Ocean ecosystems.

Long-term stability in the circumpolar foraging range of a Southern Ocean predator between the eras of whaling and rapid climate change.

Assessing environmental changes in Southern Ocean ecosystems is difficult due to its remoteness and data sparsity. Monitoring marine predators that respond rapidly to environmental variation may enable us to track anthropogenic effects on ecosystems. Yet, many long-term datasets of marine predators are incomplete because they are spatially constrained and/or track ecosystems already modified by industrial fishing and whaling in the latter half of the 20th century. Here, we assess the contemporary offshore distribution of a wide-ranging marine predator, the southern right whale (SRW, Eubalaena australis), that forages on copepods and krill from ~30°S to the Antarctic ice edge (>60°S). We analyzed carbon and nitrogen isotope values of 1,002 skin samples from six genetically distinct SRW populations using a customized assignment approach that accounts for temporal and spatial variation in the Southern Ocean phytoplankton isoscape. Over the past three decades, SRWs increased their use of mid-latitude foraging grounds in the south Atlantic and southwest (SW) Indian oceans in the late austral summer and autumn and slightly increased their use of high-latitude (>60°S) foraging grounds in the SW Pacific, coincident with observed changes in prey distribution and abundance on a circumpolar scale. Comparing foraging assignments with whaling records since the 18th century showed remarkable stability in use of mid-latitude foraging areas. We attribute this consistency across four centuries to the physical stability of ocean fronts and resulting productivity in mid-latitude ecosystems of the Southern Ocean compared with polar regions that may be more influenced by recent climate change.

Modeling individual growth reveals decreasing gray whale body length and correlations with ocean climate indices at multiple scales.

Changes in body size have been documented across taxa in response to human activities and climate change. Body size influences many aspects of an individual's physiology, behavior, and ecology, ultimately affecting life history performance and resilience to stressors. In this study, we developed an analytical approach to model individual growth patterns using aerial imagery collected via drones, which can be used to investigate shifts in body size in a population and the associated drivers. We applied the method to a large morphological dataset of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) using a distinct foraging ground along the NE Pacific coast, and found that the asymptotic length of these whales has declined since around the year 2000 at an average rate of 0.05-0.12 m/y. The decline has been stronger in females, which are estimated to be now comparable in size to males, minimizing sexual dimorphism. We show that the decline in asymptotic length is correlated with two oceanographic metrics acting as proxies of habitat quality at different scales: the mean Pacific Decadal Oscillation index, and the mean ratio between upwelling intensity in a season and the number of relaxation events. These results suggest that the decline in gray whale body size may represent a plastic response to changing environmental conditions. Decreasing body size could have cascading effects on the population's demography, ability to adjust to environmental changes, and ecological influence on the structure of their community. This finding adds to the mounting evidence that body size is shrinking in several marine populations in association with climate change and other anthropogenic stressors. Our modeling approach is broadly applicable across multiple systems where morphological data on megafauna are collected using drones.

A longitudinal study of endocrinology and foraging ecology of subadult gray whales prior to death based on baleen analysis.

Individual-level assessments of wild animal health, vital rates, and foraging ecology are critical for understanding population-wide impacts of exposure to stressors. Large whales face multiple stressors, including, but not limited to, ocean noise, pollution, and ship strikes. Because baleen is a continuously growing keratinized structure, serial extraction, and quantification of hormones and stable isotopes along the length of baleen provide a historical record of whale physiology and foraging ecology. Furthermore, baleen analysis enables the investigation of dead specimens, even decades later, allowing comparisons between historic and modern populations. Here, we examined baleen of five sub-adult gray whales and observed distinct patterns of oscillations in δ15N values along the length of their baleen plates which enabled estimation of baleen growth rates and differentiation of isotopic niche widths of the whales during wintering and summer foraging. In contrast, no regular patterns were apparent in δ13C values. Prolonged elevation of cortisol in four individuals before death indicates that chronic stress may have impacted their health and survival. Triiodothyronine (T3) increased over months in the whales with unknown causes of death, simultaneous with elevations in cortisol, but both hormones remained stable in the one case of acute death attributed to killer whale predation. This parallel elevation of cortisol and T3 challenges the classic understanding of their interaction and might relate to increased energetic demands during exposure to stressors. Reproductive hormone profiles in subadults did not show cyclical trends, suggesting they had not yet reached sexual maturity. This study highlights the potential of baleen analysis to retrospectively assess gray whales' physiological status, exposure to stressors, reproductive status, and foraging ecology in the months or years leading up to their death, which can be a useful tool for conservation diagnostics to mitigate unusual mortality events.

Untangling local and remote influences in two major petrel habitats in the oligotrophic Southern Ocean.

Ocean circulation connects geographically distinct ecosystems across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales via exchanges of physical and biogeochemical properties. Remote oceanographic processes can be especially important for ecosystems in the Southern Ocean, where the Antarctic Circumpolar Current transports properties across ocean basins through both advection and mixing. Recent tracking studies have indicated the existence of two large-scale, open ocean habitats in the Southern Ocean used by grey petrels (Procellaria cinerea) from two populations (i.e., Kerguelen and Antipodes islands) during their nonbreeding season for extended periods during austral summer (i.e., October to February). In this work, we use a novel combination of large-scale oceanographic observations, surface drifter data, satellite-derived primary productivity, numerical adjoint sensitivity experiments, and output from a biogeochemical state estimate to examine local and remote influences on these grey petrel habitats. Our aim is to understand the oceanographic features that control these isolated foraging areas and to evaluate their ecological value as oligotrophic open ocean habitats. We estimate the minimum local primary productivity required to support these populations to be much <1% of the estimated local primary productivity. The region in the southeast Indian Ocean used by the birds from Kerguelen is connected by circulation to the productive Kerguelen shelf. In contrast, the region in the south-central Pacific Ocean used by seabirds from the Antipodes is relatively isolated suggesting it is more influenced by local factors or the cumulative effects of many seasonal cycles. This work exemplifies the potential use of predator distributions and oceanographic data to highlight areas of the open ocean that may be more dynamic and productive than previously thought. Our results highlight the need to consider advective connections between ecosystems in the Southern Ocean and to re-evaluate the ecological relevance of oligotrophic Southern Ocean regions from a conservation perspective.

Similar foraging energetics of two sympatric albatrosses despite contrasting life histories and wind-mediated foraging strategies.

Understanding the environmental and behavioral factors that influence how organisms maintain energy balance can inform us about their potential resiliency to rapid environmental changes. Flexibility in maintaining energy balance is particularly important to long-lived, central-place foraging seabirds that are constrained when locating food for offspring in a dynamic ocean environment. To understand the role of environmental interactions, behavioral flexibility and morphological constraints on energy balance, we used doubly labeled water to measure the at-sea daily energy expenditure (DEE) of two sympatrically breeding seabirds, Campbell (Thalassarche impavida) and grey-headed (Thalassarchechrysostoma) albatrosses. We found that species and sexes had similar foraging costs, but DEE varied between years for both species and sexes during early chick rearing in two consecutive seasons. For both species, greater DEE was positively associated with larger proportional mass gain, lower mean wind speeds during water take-offs, greater proportions of strong tailwinds (>12 m s-1), and younger chick age. Greater proportional mass gains were marginally more costly in male albatrosses that already have higher wing loading. DEE was higher during flights with a greater proportion of strong headwinds for grey-headed albatrosses only. Poleward winds are forecasted to intensify over the next century, which may increase DEE for grey-headed albatrosses that heavily use this region during early chick rearing. Female Campbell albatrosses may be negatively affected by forecasted slackening winds at lower latitudes due to an expected greater reliance on less energy efficient sit-and-wait foraging strategies. Behavioral plasticity associated with environmental variation may influence future population responses to climate change of both species.

Whales in warming water: Assessing breeding habitat diversity and adaptability in Oceania's changing climate.

In the context of a changing climate, understanding the environmental drivers of marine megafauna distribution is important for conservation success. The extent of humpback whale breeding habitats and the impact of temperature variation on their availability are both unknown. We used 19 years of dedicated survey data from seven countries and territories of Oceania (1,376 survey days), to investigate humpback whale breeding habitat diversity and adaptability to climate change. At a fine scale (1 km resolution), seabed topography was identified as an important influence on humpback whale distribution. The shallowest waters close to shore or in lagoons were favored, although humpback whales also showed flexible habitat use patterns with respect to shallow offshore features such as seamounts. At a coarse scale (1° resolution), humpback whale breeding habitats in Oceania spanned a thermal range of 22.3-27.8°C in August, with interannual variation up to 2.0°C. Within this range, both fine and coarse scale analyses of humpback whale distribution suggested local responses to temperature. Notably, the most detailed dataset was available from New Caledonia (774 survey days, 1996-2017), where encounter rates showed a negative relationship to sea surface temperature, but were not related to the El Niño Southern Oscillation or the Antarctic Oscillation from previous summer, a proxy for feeding conditions that may impact breeding patterns. Many breeding sites that are currently occupied are predicted to become unsuitably warm for this species (>28°C) by the end of the 21st century. Based on modeled ecological relationships, there are suitable habitats for relocation in archipelagos and seamounts of southern Oceania. Although distribution shifts might be restrained by philopatry, the apparent plasticity of humpback whale habitat use patterns and the extent of suitable habitats support an adaptive capacity to ocean warming in Oceania breeding grounds.

Microbial Ecology of the Western Gull (Larus occidentalis).

Avian species host diverse communities of microorganisms which have important roles in the life of birds, including increased metabolism, protection from disease, and immune system development. Along with high human populations and a diversity of human uses of coastal zones, anthropogenic food sources are becoming increasingly available to some species, including gulls. Anthropogenic associations increase the likelihood of encountering foreign or pathogenic bacteria. Diseases in birds caused by bacteria are a substantial source of avian mortality; therefore, it is essential to characterize the microbiome of seabirds. Here, we determined both core and environmentally derived microbial communities of breeding western gulls (Larus occidentalis) from six colonies in California and Oregon. Using DNA extracted from bacterial swabs of the bill, cloaca, and feet of gulls, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed targeting the V4 region. We identified a total of 8542 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from 75 gulls. Sixty-eight OTUs were identified in gulls from all six colonies with the greatest representation from phyla's of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria. Overall, microbial richness based on Chao's Abundance-based Coverage Estimator (ACE) index was similar for all colonies (mean = 2347 OTUs) with the smallest coastal colonies having the highest richness (mean = 2626 OTUs) and the largest colonies, located farther off-shore, having the lowest (mean = 2068 OTUs). This survey represents the most in-depth assessment to date of microbes associated with western gulls, and the first study to identify both species-specific and environmentally derived bacteria across multiple populations.

Exploring indirect effects of a classic trophic cascade between urchins and kelp on zooplankton and whales.

Kelp forest trophic cascades have been extensively researched, yet indirect effects to the zooplankton prey base and gray whales have not been explored. We investigate the correlative patterns of a trophic cascade between bull kelp and purple sea urchins on gray whales and zooplankton in Oregon, USA. Using generalized additive models (GAMs), we assess (1) temporal dynamics of the four species across 8 years, and (2) possible trophic paths from urchins to kelp, kelp as habitat to zooplankton, and kelp and zooplankton to gray whales. Temporal GAMs revealed an increase in urchin coverage, with simultaneous decline in kelp condition, zooplankton abundance and gray whale foraging time. Trophic path GAMs, which tested for correlations between species, demonstrated that urchins and kelp were negatively correlated, while kelp and zooplankton were positively correlated. Gray whales showed nuanced and site-specific correlations with zooplankton in one site, and positive correlations with kelp condition in both sites. The negative correlation between the kelp-urchin trophic cascade and zooplankton resulted in a reduced prey base for gray whales. This research provides a new perspective on the vital role kelp forests may play across multiple trophic levels and interspecies linkages.

Three decades of nearshore surveys reveal long-term patterns in gray whale habitat use, distribution, and abundance in the Northern California Current.

The nearshore waters of the Northern California Current support an important seasonal foraging ground for Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG) gray whales. We examine gray whale distribution, habitat use, and abundance over 31 years (1992-2022) using standardized nearshore (< 5 km from shore) surveys spanning a large swath of the PCFG foraging range. Specifically, we generated density surface models, which incorporate detection probability into generalized additive models to assess environmental correlates of gray whale distribution and predict abundance over time. We illustrate the importance of coastal upwelling dynamics, whereby increased upwelling only yields higher gray whale density if interspersed with relaxation events, likely because this combination optimizes influx and retention of nutrients to support recruitment and aggregation of gray whale prey. Several habitat features influence gray whale distribution, including substrate, shelf width, prominent capes, and river estuaries. However, the influence of these features differs between regions, revealing heterogeneity in habitat preferences throughout the PCFG foraging range. Predicted gray whale abundance fluctuated throughout our study period, but without clear directional trends, unlike previous abundance estimates based on mark-recapture models. This study highlights the value of long-term monitoring, shedding light on the impacts of variable environmental conditions on an iconic nearshore marine predator.

Environmental conditions and marine heatwaves influence blue whale foraging and reproductive effort.

Animal behavior is motivated by the fundamental need to feed and reproduce, and these behaviors can be inferred from spatiotemporal variations in biological signals such as vocalizations. Yet, linking foraging and reproductive effort to environmental drivers can be challenging for wide-ranging predator species. Blue whales are acoustically active marine predators that produce two distinct vocalizations: song and D calls. We examined environmental correlates of these vocalizations using continuous recordings from five hydrophones in the South Taranaki Bight region of Aotearoa New Zealand to investigate call behavior relative to ocean conditions and infer life history patterns. D calls were strongly correlated with oceanographic drivers of upwelling in spring and summer, indicating associations with foraging effort. In contrast, song displayed a highly seasonal pattern with peak intensity in fall, which aligned with the timing of conception inferred from whaling records. Finally, during a marine heatwave, reduced foraging (inferred from D calls) was followed by lower reproductive effort (inferred from song intensity).

The variable influence of anthropogenic noise on summer season coastal underwater soundscapes near a port and marine reserve.

Monitoring soundscapes is essential for assessing environmental conditions for soniferous species, yet little is known about sound levels and contributors in Oregon coastal regions. From 2017 to 2021, during June-September, two hydrophones were deployed near Newport, Oregon to sample 10-13,000 Hz underwater sound. One hydrophone was deployed near the Port of Newport in a high vessel activity area, and another 17 km north within a protected Marine Reserve. Vessel noise and whale vocalizations were detected at both sites, but whales were recorded on more days at the Marine Reserve. Median sound levels in frequencies related to noise from various vessel types and sizes (50 - 4,000 Hz) were up to 6 dB higher at the Port of Newport, with greater diel variability compared to the Marine Reserve. In addition to documenting summer season conditions in Oregon waters, these results exemplify how underwater soundscapes can differ over short distances depending on anthropogenic activity.

Assessing variation in faecal glucocorticoid concentrations in gray whales exposed to anthropogenic stressors.

Understanding how individual animals respond to stressors behaviourally and physiologically is a critical step towards quantifying long-term population consequences and informing management efforts. Glucocorticoid (GC) metabolite accumulation in various matrices provides an integrated measure of adrenal activation in baleen whales and could thus be used to investigate physiological changes following exposure to stressors. In this study, we measured GC concentrations in faecal samples of Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG) gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) collected over seven consecutive years to assess the association between GC content and metrics of exposure to sound levels and vessel traffic at different temporal scales, while controlling for contextual variables such as sex, reproductive status, age, body condition, year, time of year and location. We develop a Bayesian Generalized Additive Modelling approach that accommodates the many complexities of these data, including non-linear variation in hormone concentrations, missing covariate values, repeated samples, sampling variability and some hormone concentrations below the limit of detection. Estimated relationships showed large variability, but emerging patterns indicate a strong context-dependency of physiological variation, depending on sex, body condition and proximity to a port. Our results highlight the need to control for baseline hormone variation related to context, which otherwise can obscure the functional relationship between faecal GCs and stressor exposure. Therefore, extensive data collection to determine sources of baseline variation in well-studied populations, such as PCFG gray whales, could shed light on cetacean stress physiology and be used to extend applicability to less-well-studied taxa. GC analyses may offer greatest utility when employed as part of a suite of markers that, in aggregate, provide a multivariate measure of physiological status, better informing estimates of individuals' health and ultimately the consequences of anthropogenic stressors on populations.

Shaken, not stirred: blue whales show no acoustic response to earthquake events.

Quantifying how animals respond to disturbance events bears relevance for understanding consequences to population health. We investigate whether blue whales respond acoustically to naturally occurring episodic noise by examining calling before and after earthquakes (27 040 calls, 32 earthquakes; 27 January-29 June 2016). Two vocalization types were evaluated: New Zealand blue whale song and downswept vocalizations ('D calls'). Blue whales did not alter the number of D calls, D call received level or song intensity following earthquakes (paired t-tests, p > 0.7 for all). Linear models accounting for earthquake strength and proximity revealed significant relationships between change in calling activity surrounding earthquakes and prior calling activity (D calls: R 2 = 0.277, p < 0.0001; song: R 2 = 0.080, p = 0.028); however, these same relationships were true for 'null' periods without earthquakes (D calls: R 2 = 0.262, p < 0.0001; song: R 2 = 0.149, p = 0.0002), indicating that the pattern is driven by blue whale calling context regardless of earthquake presence. Our findings that blue whales do not respond to episodic natural noise provide context for interpreting documented acoustic responses to anthropogenic noise sources, including shipping traffic and petroleum development, indicating that they potentially evolved tolerance for natural noise sources but not novel noise from anthropogenic origins.

The role of allochrony in influencing interspecific differences in foraging distribution during the non-breeding season between two congeneric crested penguin species.

Mechanisms promoting coexistence between closely related species are fundamental for maintaining species diversity. Mechanisms of niche differentiation include allochrony which offsets the peak timing of resource utilisation between species. Many studies focus on spatial and temporal niche partitioning during the breeding season, few have investigated the role allochrony plays in influencing interspecific segregation of foraging distribution and ecology between congeneric species during the non-breeding season. We investigated the non-breeding migrations of Snares (Eudyptes robustus) and Fiordland penguins (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), closely related species breeding between 100-350 km apart whose migration phenology differs by two months. Using light geolocation tracking, we examined the degree of overlap given the observed allochrony and a hypothetical scenario where the species commence migration simultaneously. We found that Fiordland penguins migrated to the Sub-Antarctic Frontal Zone and Polar Frontal Zone in the austral autumn whereas Snares penguins disperse westwards staying north of the Sub-Tropical Front in the austral winter. Our results suggest that allochrony is likely to be at the root of segregation because the relative profitability of the different water masses that the penguins forage in changes seasonally which results in the two species utilising different areas over their core non-breeding periods. Furthermore, allochrony reduces relatively higher levels of spatiotemporal overlap during the departure and arrival periods, when the close proximity of the two species' colonies would cause the birds to congregate in similar areas, resulting in high interspecific competition just before the breeding season. Available evidence from other studies suggests that the shift in phenology between these species has arisen from adaptive radiation and phenological matching to the seasonality of local resource availability during the breeding season and reduced competitive overlap over the non-breeding season is likely to be an incidental outcome.

Effects of vessel traffic and ocean noise on gray whale stress hormones.

Human use of marinescapes is rapidly increasing, especially in populated nearshore regions where recreational vessel traffic can be dense. Marine animals can have a physiological response to such elevated human activity that can impact individual health and population dynamics. To understand the physiological impacts of vessel traffic on baleen whales, we investigated the adrenal stress response of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) to variable vessel traffic levels through an assessment of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGC) concentrations. This analysis was conducted at the individual level, at multiple temporal scales (1-7 days), and accounted for factors that may confound fGC: sex, age, nutritional status, and reproductive state. Data were collected in Oregon, USA, from June to October of 2016-2018. Results indicate significant correlations between fGC, month, and vessel counts from the day prior to fecal sample collection. Furthermore, we show a significant positive correlation between vessel traffic and underwater ambient noise levels, which indicates that noise produced by vessel traffic may be a causal factor for the increased fGC. This study increases knowledge of gray whale physiological response to vessel traffic and may inform management decisions regarding regulations of vessel traffic activities and thresholds near critical whale habitats.

Temporal and spatial lags between wind, coastal upwelling, and blue whale occurrence.

Understanding relationships between physical drivers and biological response is central to advancing ecological knowledge. Wind is the physical forcing mechanism in coastal upwelling systems, however lags between wind input and biological responses are seldom quantified for marine predators. Lags were examined between wind at an upwelling source, decreased temperatures along the upwelling plume's trajectory, and blue whale occurrence in New Zealand's South Taranaki Bight region (STB). Wind speed and sea surface temperature (SST) were extracted for austral spring-summer months between 2009 and 2019. A hydrophone recorded blue whale vocalizations October 2016-March 2017. Timeseries cross-correlation analyses were conducted between wind speed, SST at different locations along the upwelling plume, and blue whale downswept vocalizations (D calls). Results document increasing lag times (0-2 weeks) between wind speed and SST consistent with the spatial progression of upwelling, culminating with increased D call density at the distal end of the plume three weeks after increased wind speeds at the upwelling source. Lag between wind events and blue whale aggregations (n = 34 aggregations 2013-2019) was 2.09 ± 0.43 weeks. Variation in lag was significantly related to the amount of wind over the preceding 30 days, which likely influences stratification. This study enhances knowledge of physical-biological coupling in upwelling ecosystems and enables improved forecasting of species distribution patterns for dynamic management.

Foraging in marine habitats increases mercury concentrations in a generalist seabird.

Methylmercury concentrations vary widely across geographic space and among habitat types, with marine and aquatic-feeding organisms typically exhibiting higher mercury concentrations than terrestrial-feeding organisms. However, there are few model organisms to directly compare mercury concentrations as a result of foraging in marine, estuarine, or terrestrial food webs. The ecological impacts of differential foraging may be especially important for generalist species that exhibit high plasticity in foraging habitats, locations, or diet. Here, we investigate whether foraging habitat, sex, or fidelity to a foraging area impact blood mercury concentrations in western gulls (Larus occidentalis) from three colonies on the US west coast. Cluster analyses showed that nearly 70% of western gulls foraged primarily in ocean or coastal habitats, whereas the remaining gulls foraged in terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Gulls that foraged in ocean or coastal habitats for half or more of their foraging locations had 55% higher mercury concentrations than gulls that forage in freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Ocean-foraging gulls also had lower fidelity to a specific foraging area than freshwater and terrestrial-foraging gulls, but fidelity and sex were unrelated to gull blood mercury concentrations in all models. These findings support existing research that has described elevated mercury levels in species using aquatic habitats. Our analyses also demonstrate that gulls can be used to detect differences in contaminant exposure over broad geographic scales and across coarse habitat types, a factor that may influence gull health and persistence of other populations that forage across the land-sea gradient.

Insight into the kinematics of blue whale surface foraging through drone observations and prey data.

To understand how predators optimize foraging strategies, extensive knowledge of predator behavior and prey distribution is needed. Blue whales employ an energetically demanding lunge feeding method that requires the whales to selectively feed where energetic gain exceeds energetic loss, while also balancing oxygen consumption, breath holding capacity, and surface recuperation time. Hence, blue whale foraging behavior is primarily driven by krill patch density and depth, but many studies have not fully considered surface feeding as a significant foraging strategy in energetic models. We collected predator and prey data on a blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda) foraging ground in New Zealand in February 2017 to assess the distributional and behavioral response of blue whales to the distribution and density of krill prey aggregations. Krill density across the study region was greater toward the surface (upper 20 m), and blue whales were encountered where prey was relatively shallow and more dense. This relationship was particularly evident where foraging and surface lunge feeding were observed. Furthermore, New Zealand blue whales also had relatively short dive times (2.83 ± 0.27 SE min) as compared to other blue whale populations, which became even shorter at foraging sightings and where surface lunge feeding was observed. Using an unmanned aerial system (UAS; drone) we also captured unique video of a New Zealand blue whale's surface feeding behavior on well-illuminated krill patches. Video analysis illustrates the whale's potential use of vision to target prey, make foraging decisions, and orient body mechanics relative to prey patch characteristics. Kinematic analysis of a surface lunge feeding event revealed biomechanical coordination through speed, acceleration, head inclination, roll, and distance from krill patch to maximize prey engulfment. We compared these lunge kinematics to data previously reported from tagged blue whale lunges at depth to demonstrate strong similarities, and provide rare measurements of gape size, and krill response distance and time. These findings elucidate the predator-prey relationship between blue whales and krill, and provide support for the hypothesis that surface feeding by New Zealand blue whales is an important component to their foraging ecology used to optimize their energetic efficiency. Understanding how blue whales make foraging decisions presents logistical challenges, which may cause incomplete sampling and biased ecological knowledge if portions of their foraging behavior are undocumented. We conclude that surface foraging could be an important strategy for blue whales, and integration of UAS with tag-based studies may expand our understanding of their foraging ecology by examining surface feeding events in conjunction with behaviors at depth.

Horizontal and vertical movements of humpback whales inform the use of critical pelagic habitats in the western South Pacific.

Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are known for their nearshore distribution during the breeding season, but their pelagic habitat use patterns remain mostly unexplored. From 2016 to 2018, 18 humpback whales were equipped with depth-recording satellite tags (SPLASH10) to shed light on environmental and social drivers of seamount association around New Caledonia in the western South Pacific. Movement paths were spatially structured around shallow seamounts (<200 m). Indeed, two males stopped over the Lord Howe seamount chain during the first-ever recorded longitudinal transit between New Caledonia and the east coast of Australia. Residence time significantly increased with proximity to shallow seamounts, while dive depth increased in the vicinity of seafloor ridges. Most of the 7,986 recorded dives occurred above 80 m (88.5%), but deep dives (>80 m, max 616 m) were also recorded (11.5%), including by maternal females. Deep dives often occurred in series and were characterized by U-shapes suggesting high energy expenditure. This study provides new insights into the formerly overlooked use of pelagic habitats by humpback whales during the breeding season. Given increasing anthropogenic threats on deep sea habitats worldwide, this work has implications for the conservation of vulnerable marine ecosystems.