Spermidine-Eugenol Supplement Preserved Inflammation-Challenged Intestinal Cells by Stimulating Autophagy.

Increases in non-communicable and auto-immune diseases, with a shared etiology of defective autophagy and chronic inflammation, have motivated research both on natural products in drug discovery fields and on the interrelationship between autophagy and inflammation. Within this framework, the tolerability and protective effects of a wheat-germ spermidine (SPD) and clove eugenol (EUG) combination supplement (SUPPL) were investigated on inflammation status (after the administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) and on autophagy using human Caco-2 and NCM460 cell lines. In comparison to the LPS treatment alone, the SUPPL + LPS significantly attenuated ROS levels and midkine expression in monocultures, as well as occludin expression and mucus production in reconstituted intestinal equivalents. Over a timeline of 2-4 h, the SUPPL and SUPPL + LPS treatments stimulated autophagy LC3-11 steady state expression and turnover, as well as P62 turnover. After completely blocking autophagy with dorsomorphin, inflammatory midkine was significantly reduced in the SUPPL + LPS treatment in a non-autophagy-dependent manner. After a 24 h timeline, preliminary results showed that mitophagy receptor BNIP3L expression was significantly downregulated in the SUPPL + LPS treatment compared to the LPS alone, whereas conventional autophagy protein expression was significantly higher. The SUPPL shows promise in reducing inflammation and increasing autophagy to improve intestinal health.

Wheat Germ Spermidine and Clove Eugenol in Combination Stimulate Autophagy In Vitro Showing Potential in Supporting the Immune System against Viral Infections.

Impaired autophagy, responsible for increased inflammation, constitutes a risk factor for the more severe COVID-19 outcomes. Spermidine (SPD) is a known autophagy modulator and supplementation for COVID-19 risk groups (including the elderly) is recommended. However, information on the modulatory effects of eugenol (EUG) is scarce. Therefore, the effects of SPD and EUG, both singularly and in combination, on autophagy were investigated using different cell lines (HBEpiC, SHSY5Y, HUVEC, Caco-2, L929 and U937). SPD (0.3 mM), EUG (0.2 mM) and 0.3 mM SPD + 0.2 mM EUG, significantly increased autophagy using the hallmark measure of LC3-II protein accumulation in the cell lines without cytotoxic effects. Using Caco-2 cells as a model, several crucial autophagy proteins were upregulated at all stages of autophagic flux in response to the treatments. This effect was verified by the activation/differentiation and migration of U937 monocytes in a three-dimensional reconstituted intestinal model (Caco-2, L929 and U937 cells). Comparable benefits of SPD, EUG and SPD + EUG in inducing autophagy were shown by the protection of Caco-2 and L929 cells against lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation. SPD + EUG is an innovative dual therapy capable of stimulating autophagy and reducing inflammation in vitro and could show promise for COVID-19 risk groups.

An Overview on Dietary Polyphenols and Their Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS).

Polyphenols are natural organic compounds produced by plants, acting as antioxidants by reacting with ROS. These compounds are widely consumed in daily diet and many studies report several benefits to human health thanks to their bioavailability in humans. However, the digestion process of phenolic compounds is still not completely clear. Moreover, bioavailability is dependent on the metabolic phase of these compounds. The LogP value can be managed as a simplified measure of the lipophilicity of a substance ingested within the human body, which affects resultant absorption. The biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS), a method used to classify drugs intended for gastrointestinal absorption, correlates the solubility and permeability of the drug with both the rate and extent of oral absorption. BCS may be helpful to measure the bioactive constituents of foods, such as polyphenols, in order to understand their nutraceutical potential. There are many literature studies that focus on permeability, absorption, and bioavailability of polyphenols and their resultant metabolic byproducts, but there is still confusion about their respective LogP values and BCS classification. This review will provide an overview of the information regarding 10 dietarypolyphenols (ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, quercetin, apigenin, cirsimaritin, daidzein, resveratrol, ellagic acid, and curcumin) and their association with the BCS classification.

Pro-Inflammatory Effect of Gliadins and Glutenins Extracted from Different Wheat Cultivars on an In Vitro 3D Intestinal Epithelium Model.

There is a need to assess the relationship between improved rheological properties and the immunogenic potential of wheat proteins. The present study aimed to investigate the in vitro effects of total protein extracts from three modern and two landrace Triticum aestivum commercial flour mixes, with significant differences in gluten strength (GS), on cell lines. Cytotoxicity and innate immune responses induced by wheat proteins were investigated using Caco-2 monocultures, two dimensional (2D) Caco-2/U937 co-cultures, and three dimensional (3D) co-cultures simulating the intestinal mucosa with Caco-2 epithelial cells situated above an extra-cellular matrix containing U937 monocytes and L929 fibroblasts. Modern wheat proteins, with increased GS, significantly reduced Caco-2 cell proliferation and vitality in monoculture and 2D co-cultures than landrace proteins. Modern wheat proteins also augmented Caco-2 monolayer disruption and tight junction protein, occludin, redistribution in 3D co-cultures. Release of interleukin-8 into the cell medium and increased U937 monocyte migration in both 2D and 3D co-cultures were similarly apparent. Immuno-activation of migrating U937 cells was evidenced from cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14) staining and CD11b-related differentiation into macrophages. The modern wheat proteins, with gluten polymorphism relatedness and increased GS, were shown to be more cytotoxic and immunogenic than the landrace wheat proteins.

Phenolic acids of modern and ancient grains: Effect on in vitro cell model.

BACKGROUND: The gastrointestinal tract establishes a barrier between the external and internal compartments. When this barrier is disrupted, an inflammatory cascade promotes intestinal inflammation and the development of several intestinal diseases. Plant-derived polyphenols are health-promoting phytochemicals with a role in the regulation of the intestinal barrier and in the prevention of intestinal inflammatory diseases. Modern wheat-breeding programs have been focused primarily on yield improvement rather than nutritional and functional proprieties. Research that aims to characterize the phytochemical profile of wheat varieties and their healthy proprieties could therefore provide new prospects for the genetic improvement of the genus Triticum. In the present work, the effects of phenolic compounds extracted from nine soft and seven durum wheat varieties were studied for their polyphenol content and antioxidant activity. Experiments were conducted to study their effects on cell proliferation and wound healing in three different cell lines: mouse fibroblasts (L929), intestinal human cells (Caco2), and human monocytes (U937). RESULTS: Discriminant analysis evidenced differences between soft and durum wheat phenolic compounds. Among the soft varieties, it was possible to identify clusters in which ancient wheat varieties showed different properties from modern ones, whereas no evident clusters were detected among durum varieties. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these results suggest that the selection of specific wheat grains based on their nutritional parameters will help in the design of diets with protective effects against chronic and inflammatory diseases. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Survivin Modulates Squamous Cell Carcinoma-Derived Stem-Like Cell Proliferation, Viability and Tumor Formation in Vivo.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma-derived Stem-like Cells (SCC-SC) originate from alterations in keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) gene expression and sustain tumor development, invasion and recurrence. Since survivin, a KSC marker, is highly expressed in SCC-SC, we evaluate its role in SCC-SC cell growth and SCC models. Survivin silencing by siRNA decreases clonal growth of SCC keratinocytes and viability of total, rapidly adhering (RAD) and non-RAD (NRAD) cells from primary SCC. Similarly, survivin silencing reduces the expression of stem cell markers (OCT4, NOTCH1, CD133, ß1-integrin), while it increases the level of differentiation markers (K10, involucrin). Moreover, survivin silencing improves the malignant phenotype of SCC 3D-reconstruct, as demonstrated by reduced epidermal thickness, lower Ki-67 positive cell number, and decreased expression of MMP9 and psoriasin. Furthermore, survivin depletion by siRNA in Ras(G12V)-IκBα-derived tumors leads to smaller tumor formation characterized by lower mitotic index and reduced expression of the tumor-associated marker HIF1α, VEGF and CD51. Therefore, our results indicate survivin as a key gene in regulating SCC cancer stem cell formation and cSCC development.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α and CD271 inversely correlate with melanoma invasiveness.

Melanoma is characterized, among other features, by microenvironmental factors and by an altered apoptotic machinery. Melanoma cell response to a hypoxic environment is transcriptionally regulated by the Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (HIF)-1α. p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR) ), also called CD271, mediates apoptosis in several cell systems. The purpose of this study was to analyze the expression of HIF-1α and CD271 in melanomas at different phases of progression, as evaluated by histology and reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM). By RCM, 41.67% tumors were characterized by the presence of a population of dendritic and pleomorphic cells (D+P), corresponding to in situ melanoma; 25% exhibited a predominantly round-cell (RN) proliferation with histologic features of superficial melanoma, and 33.33% showed the presence of cells aggregated in nests (DN), typical of invasive melanoma. HIF-1α was scarcely detected in D+P and in RN melanomas, while it was highly expressed in DN tumors. By contrast, CD271 positive cells were mostly detected in D+P population, and barely observed in the other subtypes. This work demonstrates that CD271 expression inversely correlates with hypoxia in melanoma, and that the two markers may be used in the future as diagnostic/prognostic tools for this neoplasm.

Notch Cooperates with Survivin to Maintain Stemness and to Stimulate Proliferation in Human Keratinocytes during Ageing.

The Notch signaling pathway orchestrates cell fate by either inducing cell differentiation or maintaining cells in an undifferentiated state. This study aims to evaluate Notch expression and function in normal human keratinocytes. Notch1 is expressed in all epidermal layers, though to a different degree of intensity, with a dramatic decrease during ageing. Notch1 intracellular domain (N1ICD) levels are decreased during transit from keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) to transit amplifying (TA) cells, mimicking survivin expression in samples from donors of all ages. Calcium markedly reduces N1ICD levels in keratinocytes. N1ICD overexpression induces the up-regulation of survivin and the down-regulation of keratin 10 and involucrin, while increasing the S phase of the cell cycle. On the other hand, Notch1 inhibition (DAPT) dose-dependently decreases survivin, stimulates differentiation, and reduces keratinocyte proliferation in samples from donors of all ages. Silencing Notch downgrades survivin and increases keratin 10. In addition, Notch1 inhibition decreases survivin levels and proliferation both in KSC and TA cells. Finally, while survivin overexpression decreases keratinocyte differentiation and increases N1ICD expression both in KSC and TA cells, silencing survivin results in N1ICD down-regulation and an increase in differentiation markers. These results suggest that the Notch1/survivin crosstalk contributes to the maintenance of stemness in human keratinocytes.

E-FABP induces differentiation in normal human keratinocytes and modulates the differentiation process in psoriatic keratinocytes in vitro.

Epidermal fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP) is a lipid carrier, originally discovered in human epidermis. We show that E-FABP is almost exclusively expressed in postmitotic (PM) keratinocytes, corresponding to its localization in the highest suprabasal layers, while it is barely expressed in keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) and transit amplifying (TA) keratinocytes. Transfection of normal human keratinocytes with recombinant (r) E-FABP induces overexpression of K10 and involucrin. On the other hand, E-FABP inhibition by siRNA downregulates K10 and involucrin expression in normal keratinocytes through NF-κB and JNK signalling pathways. E-FABP is highly expressed in psoriatic epidermis, and it is mainly localized in stratum spinosum. Psoriatic PM keratinocytes overexpress E-FABP as compared to the same population in normal epidermis. E-FABP inhibition in psoriatic keratinocytes markedly reduces differentiation, while it upregulates psoriatic markers such as survivin and K16. However, under high-calcium conditions, E-FABP silencing downregulates K10 and involucrin, while survivin and K16 expression is completely abolished. These data strongly indicate that E-FABP plays an important role in keratinocyte differentiation. Moreover, E-FABP modulates differentiation in psoriatic keratinocytes.

Isolation and characterization of squamous cell carcinoma-derived stem-like cells: role in tumor formation.

In human epidermis, keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) are characterized by high levels of ß1-integrin, resulting in the rapid adhesion to type IV collagen. Since epithelial tumors originate from KSC, we evaluated the features of rapidly adhering (RAD) keratinocytes derived from primary human squamous cell carcinoma of the skin (cSCC). RAD cells expressed higher levels of survivin, a KSC marker, as compared to non-rapidly adhering (NRAD) cells. Moreover, RAD cells proliferated to a greater extent and were more efficient in forming colonies than NRAD cells. RAD cells also migrated significantly better than NRAD cells. When seeded in a silicone chamber and grafted onto the back skin of NOD SCID mice, RAD cells formed tumors 2-4 fold bigger than those derived from NRAD cells. In tumors derived from RAD cells, the mitotic index was significantly higher than in those derived from NRAD cells, while Ki-67 and survivin expression were more pronounced in RAD tumors. This study suggests that SCC RAD stem cells play a critical role in the formation and development of epithelial tumors.

Basic Three-Dimensional (3D) Intestinal Model System with an Immune Component.

There has been an increase in the use of in vivo and in vitro intestinal models to study the pathophysiology of inflammatory intestinal diseases, for the pharmacological screening of potentially beneficial substances, and for toxicity studies on potentially harmful food components. Of relevance, there is a current demand for the development of cell-based in vitro models to substitute animal models. Here, a protocol for a basic, "healthy tissue" three-dimensional (3D) intestinal equivalent model using cell lines is presented with the dual benefit of providing both experimental simplicity (standardized and easily repeatable system) and physiological complexity (Caco-2 enterocytes with a supporting immune component of U937 monocytes and L929 fibroblasts). The protocol also includes paraffin embedding for light microscopic evaluation of fixed intestinal equivalents, thereby providing the advantage of analyzing multiple visual parameters from a single experiment. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained sections showing the Caco-2 columnar cells forming a tight and regular monolayer in control treatments are used to verify the efficacy of the model as an experimental system. Using gluten as a pro-inflammatory food component, parameters analyzed from sections include reduced monolayer thickness, as well as disruption and detachment from the underlying matrix (H&E), decreased tight junction protein expression as shown from occludin staining (quantifiable statistically), and immune-activation of migrating U937 cells as evidenced from the cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14) staining and CD11b-related differentiation into macrophages. As shown by using lipopolysaccharide to simulate intestinal inflammation, additional parameters that can be measured are increased mucus staining and cytokine expression (such as midkine) that can be extracted from the medium prior to fixation. The basic three-dimensional (3D) intestinal mucosa model and fixed sections can be recommended for inflammatory status and barrier integrity studies with the possibility of analyzing multiple visual quantifiable parameters.

Role of neurotrophins on dermal fibroblast survival and differentiation.

Neurotrophins (NTs) belong to a family of growth factors that play a critical role in the control of skin homeostasis. NTs act through the low-affinity receptor p75NTR and the high-affinity receptors TrkA, TrkB, and TrkC. Here we show that dermal fibroblasts (DF) and myofibroblasts (DM) synthesize and secrete all NTs and express NT receptors. NTs induce differentiation of DF into DM, as shown by the expression of α-SMA protein. The Trk inhibitor K252a, TrkA/Fc, TrkB/Fc, or TrkC/Fc chimera prevents DF and DM proliferation. In addition, p75NTR siRNA inhibits DF proliferation, indicating that both NT receptors mediate DF proliferation induced by endogenous NTs. Autocrine NTs also induce DF migration through p75NTR and Trk, as either silencing of p75NTR or Trk/Fc chimeras prevent this effect, in absence of exogenous NTs. Finally, NGF or BDNF statistically increase the tensile strength in a dose dependent manner, as measured in a collagen gel through the GlaSbox device. Taken together, these results indicate that NTs exert a critical role on fibroblast and could be involved in tissue re-modeling and wound healing.

Microgreens: Functional Food with Antiproliferative Cancer Properties Influenced by Light.

The anti-proliferative/pro-oxidant efficacy of green pea, soybean, radish, Red Rambo radish, and rocket microgreens, cultivated under either fluorescent lighting (predominant spectral peaks in green and orange) or combination light-emitting diode (LED, predominant spectral peak in blue) was investigated using Ewing sarcoma lines, RD-ES and A673, respectively. All aqueous microgreen extracts significantly reduced cell proliferation (cancer prevention effect) to varying extents in two-dimensional sarcoma cell cultures. The effect of the polyphenol fraction in the aqueous food matrix was unrelated to total polyphenol content, which differed between species and light treatment. Only Pisum sativum (LED-grown) extracts exercised anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in both three-dimensional RD-ES and A673 spheroids (early tumor progression prevention), without cytotoxic effects on healthy L929 fibroblasts. A similar anti-tumor effect of Red Rambo radish (LED and fluorescent-grown) was evident only in the RD-ES spheroids. Aside from the promising anti-tumor potential of the polyphenol fraction of green pea microgreens, the latter also displayed favorable growth quality parameters, along with radish, under both light treatments over the 10 day cultivation period.

Comparative Evaluation of the Cytotoxicity of Glyphosate-Based Herbicides and Glycine in L929 and Caco2 Cells.

Introduction: Glyphosate, an amino acid analog of glycine, is the most widely applied organophosphate pesticide worldwide and it is an active ingredient of all glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs), including the formulation "Roundup. " While glycine is an essential amino acid generally recognized safe, both epidemiological and toxicological in vivo and in vitro studies available in literature report conflicting findings on the toxicity of GBHs. In our earlier in vivo studies in Sprague-Dawley rats we observed that exposure to GBHs at doses of glyphosate of 1.75 mg/kg bw/day, induced different toxic effects relating to sexual development, endocrine system, and the alteration of the intestinal microbiome. In the present work, we aimed to comparatively test in in vitro models the cytotoxicity of glycine and GBHs. Methods: We tested the cytotoxic effects of glycine, glyphosate, and its formulation Roundup Bioflow at different doses using MTT and Trypan Blue assays in human Caco2 and murine L929 cell lines. Results: Statistically significant dose-related cytotoxic effects were observed in MTT and Trypan Blue assays in murine (L929) and human (Caco2) cells treated with glyphosate or Roundup Bioflow. No cytotoxic effects were observed for glycine. In L929, Roundup Bioflow treatment showed a mean IC50 value that was significantly lower than glyphosate in both MTT and Trypan Blue assays. In Caco2, Roundup Bioflow treatment showed a mean IC50 value that was significantly lower than glyphosate in the MTT assays, while a comparable IC50 was observed for glyphosate and Roundup Bioflow in Trypan Blue assays. IC50 for glycine could not be estimated because of the lack of cytotoxic effects of the substance. Conclusion: Glyphosate and its formulation Roundup Bioflow, but not glycine, caused dose-related cytotoxic effects in in vitro human and murine models (Caco2 and L929). Our results showed that glycine and its analog glyphosate presented different cytotoxicity profiles. Glyphosate and Roundup Bioflow demonstrate cytotoxicity similar to other organophosphate pesticides (malathion, diazinon, and chlorpyriphos).

Specific Activation of the CD271 Intracellular Domain in Combination with Chemotherapy or Targeted Therapy Inhibits Melanoma Progression.

CD271 (NGFR) is a neurotrophin receptor that belongs to the tumor necrosis receptor (TNFR) family. Upon ligand binding, CD271 can mediate either survival or cell death. Although the role of CD271 as a marker of tumor-initiating cells is still a matter of debate, its role in melanoma progression has been well documented. Moreover, CD271 has been shown to be upregulated after exposure to both chemotherapy and targeted therapy. In this study, we demonstrate that activation of CD271 by a short ß-amyloid-derived peptide (Aß(25-35)) in combination with either chemotherapy or MAPK inhibitors induces apoptosis in 2D and 3D cultures of eight melanoma cell lines. This combinatorial treatment significantly reduced metastasis in a zebrafish xenograft model and led to significantly decreased tumor volume in mice. Administration of Aß(25-35) in ex vivo tumors from immunotherapy- and targeted therapy-resistant patients significantly reduced proliferation of melanoma cells, showing that activation of CD271 can overcome drug resistance. Aß(25-35) was specific to CD271-expressing cells and induced CD271 cleavage and phosphorylation of JNK (pJNK). The direct protein-protein interaction of pJNK with CD271 led to PARP1 cleavage, p53 and caspase activation, and pJNK-dependent cell death. Aß(25-35) also mediated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) accumulation, which induced CD271 overexpression. Finally, CD271 upregulation inhibited mROS production, revealing the presence of a negative feedback loop in mROS regulation. These results indicate that targeting CD271 can activate cell death pathways to inhibit melanoma progression and potentially overcome resistance to targeted therapy. SIGNIFICANCE: The discovery of a means to specifically activate the CD271 death domain reveals unknown pathways mediated by the receptor and highlights new treatment possibilities for melanoma.

Are Supplements Safe? Effects of Gallic and Ferulic Acids on In Vitro Cell Models.

Polyphenols display health-promoting properties linked to their biological activities. They are initially absorbed in the small intestine, then they are largely metabolized in the colon, whereupon they are able to exert systemic effects. The health-promoting properties of polyphenols have led to the development of food supplements, which are also largely consumed by healthy people, even if data on their safety are still yet lacking. In the present paper, the content of gallic acid and ferulic acid was analyzed in two supplements, and shown to be higher than the relative contents found in fruit and flour. To evaluate the effects of these phenolic compounds on epithelial intestinal tissue, gallic and ferulic acids were added to a new in vitro model of the intestinal wall at different concentrations. The effects on viability, proliferation and migration of these compounds were respectively tested on three different cell lines (Caco2, L929 and U937), as well as on a tridimensional intestinal model, composed of a mucosal layer and a submucosa with fibroblasts and monocytes. Results indicated that gallic and ferulic acids can exert toxic effects on in vitro cell models at high concentrations, suggesting that an excessive and uncontrolled consumption of polyphenols may induce negative effects on the intestinal wall.

Endogenous survivin modulates survival and proliferation in UVB-treated human keratinocytes.

Survivin is a bi-functional member of inhibitor of apoptosis protein family, as it is able to both inhibit apoptosis and to regulate cell cycle. We investigated the role of survivin in human keratinocytes under normal conditions and during UVB irradiation. Survivin siRNA decreases proliferation and induces apoptosis in human keratinocytes, in a mode consistent with the mitotic catastrophe. Low doses UVB increase survivin expression at earlier times, while high doses down-regulate survivin level. Low doses UVB induce cell cycle arrest in G2/M, while high doses UVB cause apoptosis. Moreover, overexpression of survivin protects keratinocytes from UVB-induced apoptosis, and silencing of survivin renders keratinocytes more susceptible to UVB-induced cell death. Finally, survivin siRNA increases UVB-induced reduction of cell proliferation. Taken together, these results indicate that survivin plays a critical role in epidermal homeostasis in normal conditions and during UVB exposure, with possible implication in skin carcinogenesis.

Apremilast Normalizes Gene Expression of Inflammatory Mediators in Human Keratinocytes and Reduces Antigen-Induced Atopic Dermatitis in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Apremilast, an oral phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 inhibitor, has demonstrated efficacy in psoriasis, while its efficacy in atopic dermatitis (AD) was found to be modest. AD is a chronic inflammatory skin disease associated with activation of T helper (Th) 2 and Th17 immunity and a compromised epidermal barrier. OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this study were to examine the expression of PDE4 isoforms in skin from healthy subjects and AD patients, and to determine the effects of apremilast on AD-related inflammatory markers in vitro and in murine models of AD. METHODS: The expression of PDE4 isoforms (A, B, C, and D) in skin biopsies from healthy subjects and AD patients was evaluated using immunohistochemistry and digital image analysis. Using quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, we evaluated the effects of apremilast on gene expression in adult human epidermal keratinocytes (HEKa) stimulated by Th2 and Th17 cytokines, and in two mouse models of antigen-induced AD. RESULTS: Expression of PDE4 isoforms increased up to three-fold in the epidermis of AD patients versus healthy skin. In interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-17-stimulated HEKa cells, apremilast significantly changed the expression of ILs, including IL-12/IL-23p40 and IL-31, and alarmins S100A7, S100A8, and S100A12. In mouse models of AD, apremilast significantly reduced ear swelling and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression. CONCLUSION: PDE4 is overexpressed in AD skin compared with normal skin, and inflammatory gene expression by human keratinocytes and mouse dermatitis can be modulated by apremilast.

Kombucha Beverage from Green, Black and Rooibos Teas: A Comparative Study Looking at Microbiology, Chemistry and Antioxidant Activity.

Kombucha is usually obtained from the fermentation of black or green tea by a consortium of acetic acid bacteria and yeasts. In this study, kombucha was prepared from the same starter consortium using green and black teas as well as, for the first time, an infusion of rooibos leaves (Aspalathus linearis). Microbial diversity was analysed during fermentation both in the biofilm and in the corresponding kombuchas, using culture-dependent and -independent methods. Polyphenols, flavonoids, ethanol, and acids were quantified and anti-oxidant activities were monitored. All of the Kombuchas showed similarity in bacterial composition, with the dominance of Komagataeibacter spp. Beta diversity showed that the yeast community was significantly different among all tea substrates, between 7 and 14 days of fermentation and between biofilm and kombucha, indicating the influence of the substrate on the fermenting microbiota. Kombucha from rooibos has a low ethanol concentration (1.1 mg/mL), and a glucuronic acid amount that was comparable to black tea. Although antioxidant activity was higher in black and green kombucha compared to rooibos, the latter showed an important effect on the recovery of oxidative damage on fibroblast cell lines against oxidative stress. These results make rooibos leaves interesting for the preparation of a fermented beverage with health benefits.