Trends in epidemiology and risk factors of opportunistic infections in kidney transplant recipients between 2004 and 2017.

BACKGROUND: While opportunistic infections are a frequent and challenging problem in kidney transplant recipients, their long-term epidemiology remains hardly known. METHODS: Opportunistic infections were recorded in 1144 recipients transplanted in our center between 2004 and 2015. Incidence rates and baseline risk factors were determined using joint frailty models. RESULTS: After a median follow-up of 5.6 years, 544 opportunistic infections occurred in 373/1144 (33%) patients, dominated by viral infections (396/544, 72%), especially cytomegalovirus (CMV) syndromes and diseases (213/544, 39%). One-third of the infected patients experienced at least two opportunistic infections. The incidence of opportunistic infections was 10 times higher during the first year post-transplantation than after that (34.7 infections for 100 patient-years vs 3.64). Opportunistic infections associated with the age of the donor (P = .032), the age of the recipient (P = .049), the CMV serostatus (P < 10-6), a higher class II HLA mismatch (P = .032) and an induction treatment including rabbit anti-thymocyte globulins (P = .026). Repeated opportunistic infections associated with each other (P < 10-6) and with renal death (P < 10-6). CONCLUSION: Opportunistic infections occur with a two-period incidence pattern and many susceptible patients suffer from repeated episodes. This knowledge may help tailor new prevention and follow-up strategies to reduce the burden of opportunistic infections and their impact on transplantation outcome.

Modulation of the intrinsic chromatin binding property of HIV-1 integrase by LEDGF/p75.

The stable insertion of the retroviral genome into the host chromosomes requires the association between integration complexes and cellular chromatin via the interaction between retroviral integrase and the nucleosomal target DNA. This final association may involve the chromatin-binding properties of both the retroviral integrase and its cellular cofactor LEDGF/p75. To investigate this and better understand the LEDGF/p75-mediated chromatin tethering of HIV-1 integrase, we used a combination of biochemical and chromosome-binding assays. Our study revealed that retroviral integrase has an intrinsic ability to bind and recognize specific chromatin regions in metaphase even in the absence of its cofactor. Furthermore, this integrase chromatin-binding property was modulated by the interaction with its cofactor LEDGF/p75, which redirected the enzyme to alternative chromosome regions. We also better determined the chromatin features recognized by each partner alone or within the functional intasome, as well as the chronology of efficient LEDGF/p75-mediated targeting of HIV-1 integrase to chromatin. Our data support a new chromatin-binding function of integrase acting in concert with LEDGF/p75 for the optimal association with the nucleosomal substrate. This work also provides additional information about the behavior of retroviral integration complexes in metaphase chromatin and the mechanism of action of LEDGF/p75 in this specific context.

Intact proviral DNA assay analysis of large cohorts of people with HIV provides a benchmark for the frequency and composition of persistent proviral DNA.

A scalable approach for quantifying intact HIV-1 proviruses is critical for basic research and clinical trials directed at HIV-1 cure. The intact proviral DNA assay (IPDA) is a novel approach to characterizing the HIV-1 reservoir, focusing on the genetic integrity of individual proviruses independent of transcriptional status. It uses multiplex digital droplet PCR to distinguish and separately quantify intact proviruses, defined by a lack of overt fatal defects such as large deletions and APOBEC3G-mediated hypermutation, from the majority of proviruses that have such defects. This distinction is important because only intact proviruses cause viral rebound on ART interruption. To evaluate IPDA performance and provide benchmark data to support its implementation, we analyzed peripheral blood samples from 400 HIV-1+ adults on ART from several diverse cohorts, representing a robust sample of treated HIV-1 infection in the United States. We provide direct quantitative evidence that defective proviruses greatly outnumber intact proviruses (by >12.5 fold). However, intact proviruses are present at substantially higher frequencies (median, 54/106 CD4+ T cells) than proviruses detected by the quantitative viral outgrowth assay, which requires induction and in vitro growth (∼1/106 CD4+ T cells). IPDA amplicon signal issues resulting from sequence polymorphisms were observed in only 6.3% of individuals and were readily apparent and easily distinguished from low proviral frequency, an advantage of the IPDA over standard PCR assays which generate false-negative results in such situations. The large IPDA dataset provided here gives the clearest quantitative picture to date of HIV-1 proviral persistence on ART.

Epidemiological and clinical insights from SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR crossing threshold values, France, January to November 2020.

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has led to an unprecedented daily use of RT-PCR tests. These tests are interpreted qualitatively for diagnosis, and the relevance of the test result intensity, i.e. the number of quantification cycles (Cq), is debated because of strong potential biases.AimWe explored the possibility to use Cq values from SARS-CoV-2 screening tests to better understand the spread of an epidemic and to better understand the biology of the infection.MethodsWe used linear regression models to analyse a large database of 793,479 Cq values from tests performed on more than 2 million samples between 21 January and 30 November 2020, i.e. the first two pandemic waves. We performed time series analysis using autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models to estimate whether Cq data information improves short-term predictions of epidemiological dynamics.ResultsAlthough we found that the Cq values varied depending on the testing laboratory or the assay used, we detected strong significant trends associated with patient age, number of days after symptoms onset or the state of the epidemic (the temporal reproduction number) at the time of the test. Furthermore, knowing the quartiles of the Cq distribution greatly reduced the error in predicting the temporal reproduction number of the COVID-19 epidemic.ConclusionOur results suggest that Cq values of screening tests performed in the general population generate testable hypotheses and help improve short-term predictions for epidemic surveillance.

Feasibility of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients with persistent SARS-CoV-2 viremia.

This study aims to assess the efficacy and safety of convalescent plasma therapy (CPT) in COVID-19 critically ill patients with protracted severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNAemia. A retrospective cohort study was conducted in intensive care unit (ICU). All patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia for whom RNAemia remained positive more than 14 days after onset of the infection were included and given CPT. The primary objective was to evaluate SARS-CoV-2 RNAemia 7 days (D7) after CPT. A total of 14 patients were included and they received a median CPT volume of 828 ml (range: 817-960). CPT was administered in a median time of 14 days after ICU admission. At D7, 13/14 patients had negative SARS-CoV-2 blood PCR and one patient had negative blood PCR 11 days after CPT. At D7 and at D14, the clinical status was improved in 7/14 and 11/14 patients, respectively. The 28-day mortality rate was 14%. No CPT-related adverse effects had been reported. CPT is safe and may be efficient in patients with protracted RNAemia admitted in ICU for severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these results.

Surveillance of HIV-1 primary infections in France from 2014 to 2016: toward stable resistance, but higher diversity, clustering and virulence?

OBJECTIVES: Patients with primary HIV-1 infection (PHI) are a particular population, giving important insight about ongoing evolution of transmitted drug resistance-associated mutation (TDRAM) prevalence, HIV diversity and clustering patterns. We describe these evolutions of PHI patients diagnosed in France from 2014 to 2016. METHODS: A total of 1121 PHI patients were included. TDRAMs were characterized using the 2009 Stanford list and the French ANRS algorithm. Viral subtypes and recent transmission clusters (RTCs) were also determined. RESULTS: Patients were mainly MSM (70%) living in the Paris area (42%). TDRAMs were identified among 10.8% of patients and rose to 18.6% when including etravirine and rilpivirine TDRAMs. Prevalences of PI-, NRTI-, first-generation NNRTI-, second-generation NNRTI- and integrase inhibitor-associated TDRAMs were 2.9%, 5.0%, 4.0%, 9.4% and 5.4%, respectively. In a multivariable analysis, age >40 years and non-R5 tropic viruses were associated with a >2-fold increased risk of TDRAMs. Regarding HIV diversity, subtype B and CRF02_AG (where CRF stands for circulating recombinant form) were the two main lineages (56% and 20%, respectively). CRF02_AG was associated with higher viral load than subtype B (5.83 versus 5.40 log10 copies/mL, P=0.004). We identified 138 RTCs ranging from 2 to 14 patients and including overall 41% from the global population. Patients in RTCs were younger, more frequently born in France and more frequently MSM. CONCLUSIONS: Since 2007, the proportion of TDRAMs has been stable among French PHI patients. Non-B lineages are increasing and may be associated with more virulent CRF02_AG strains. The presence of large RTCs highlights the need for real-time cluster identification to trigger specific prevention action to achieve better control of the epidemic.

Stable prevalence of transmitted drug resistance mutations and increased circulation of non-B subtypes in antiretroviral-naive chronically HIV-infected patients in 2015/2016 in France.

OBJECTIVES: We estimated the prevalence of transmitted-drug-resistance-associated mutations (TDRAMs) in antiretroviral-naive chronically HIV-1-infected patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: TDRAMs were sought in samples from 660 diagnosed HIV-1-infected individuals in 2015/2016 in 33 HIV clinical centres. Weighted analyses, considering the number of patients followed in each centre, were used to derive representative estimates of the percentage of individuals with TDRAMs. Results were compared with those of the 2010/2011 survey (n = 661) using the same methodology. RESULTS: At inclusion, median CD4 cell counts and plasma HIV-1 RNA were 394 and 350/mm3 (P = 0.056) and 4.6 and 4.6 log10 copies/mL (P = 0.360) in the 2010/2011 survey and the 2015/2016 survey, respectively. The frequency of non-B subtypes increased from 42.9% in 2010/2011 to 54.8% in 2015/2016 (P < 0.001), including 23.4% and 30.6% of CRF02_AG (P = 0.004). The prevalence of virus with protease or reverse-transcriptase TDRAMs was 9.0% (95% CI = 6.8-11.2) in 2010/2011 and 10.8% (95% CI = 8.4-13.2) in 2015/2016 (P = 0.269). No significant increase was observed in integrase inhibitor TDRAMs (6.7% versus 9.2%, P = 0.146). Multivariable analysis showed that men infected with the B subtype were the group with the highest risk of being infected with a resistant virus compared with others (adjusted OR = 2.2, 95% CI = 1.3-3.9). CONCLUSIONS: In France in 2015/2016, the overall prevalence of TDRAMs was 10.8% and stable compared with 9.0% in the 2010/2011 survey. Non-B subtypes dramatically increased after 2010. Men infected with B subtype were the group with the highest risk of being infected with a resistant virus, highlighting the need to re-emphasize safe sex messages.

Phenotypic analysis of HIV-1 E157Q integrase polymorphism and impact on virological outcome in patients initiating an integrase inhibitor-based regimen.

Objectives: To assess the phenotypic susceptibility of the E157Q polymorphism in HIV-1 integrase (IN) and the virological outcome of patients infected with E157Q-mutated virus initiating an IN inhibitor (INI)-based regimen. Methods: This was a multicentre study assessing IN sequences from INI-naive patients among 17 French HIV clinical centres. E157Q site-directed mutants in pNL4.3 and pCRF02_AG contexts were assessed in a recombinant phenotypic assay. Results: Prevalence of the E157Q polymorphism was 2.7% among 8528 IN sequences from INI-naive patients and its distribution was 1.7%, 5.6% and 2.2% in B, CRF02_AG and various non-B subtypes, respectively. Thirty-nine INI-naive patients with E157Q-mutated virus initiated an INI-based regimen. Among them, 15 had a viral load (VL) <50 copies/mL at initiation and virological suppression was maintained during the first year of follow-up in all but two exhibiting a viral blip. Twenty-four patients had a VL > 50 copies/mL at the time of INI-based regimen initiation. Among them eight were receiving a first-line regimen and the only two patients who did not reach VL < 50 copies/mL at week 24 were receiving elvitegravir. The 16 remaining patients were ART experienced in virological failure with drug-resistant viruses displaying several virological outcomes independently of the genotypic susceptibility score. Phenotypic analyses showed a fold change in EC50 of 0.6, 0.9 and 1.9 for raltegravir, dolutegravir and elvitegravir, respectively, in a subtype B context, and 1.1, 1.9 and 2.4 for raltegravir, dolutegravir and elvitegravir, respectively, in a CRF02_AG context. Conclusions: Assessment of virological response in 39 patients initiating an INI-based regimen with E157Q-mutated virus, in combination with phenotypic analysis, suggests that particular attention should be paid to antiretroviral-naive patients and dolutegravir should be preferentially used in these patients.

Long-term follow-up of HIV-1 multi-drug-resistant treatment-experienced participants treated with etravirine, raltegravir and boosted darunavir: towards drug-reduced regimen? ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort 2007-2018.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of raltegravir, etravirine and darunavir/ritonavir (TRIO regimen) in treatment-experienced patients with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infection by describing the proportion of patients who experienced virological failure (VF) at Week 24. The secondary objectives were to assess the HIV-1 plasma viral load (pVL) after Week 24, the proportion of patients who were receiving dual therapy or monotherapy at the last visit, and the number of deaths. METHODS: Patients from the ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort who were prescribed the TRIO regimen between February 2007 and September 2018 were classified into two groups based on their pVL at study inclusion: the virological failure group (VFG; pVL >50 copies/mL) and the virologically suppressed group (VSG; pVL <50 copies/mL). The impact of baseline pVL and genotypic susceptibility score (GSS) on VF was analysed. RESULTS: In total, 184 patients were enrolled in this study, with 123 (66.8%) in the VFG and 61 (33.2%) in the VSG. The median length of follow-up was 7.5 (interquartile range 4.1-9.6) years, and 29 (15.8%) patients died. Thirty-seven (25.5%) patients experienced VF at Week 24, including 32/145 (32.7%) in the VFG and 5/47 (10.6%) in the VSG (P<0.01). Resistance-associated mutations were detected in integrase, reverse transcriptase and protease for 7/37 (18.9%), 3/37 (8.1%) and 1/37 (2.7%) patients, respectively. High pVL and GSS at baseline were independently associated with VF. At the last visit, 76/184 (41.3%) patients were still receiving the TRIO regimen, while 55/184 (29.9%) were receiving dual therapy and 1/184 (0.5%) was receiving protease inhibitor monotherapy. Among the 56 patients receiving dual therapy or monotherapy, 51 (96.2%) had pVL <50 copies/mL. CONCLUSION: Despite a high level of mutation resistance at baseline, long-term virological follow-up was favourable and one-third of patients were eligible for drug-reducing strategies.

Mechanisms of systemic low-grade inflammation in HIV patients on long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy: the inflammasome hypothesis.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the contribution of inflammasome activation in chronic low-grade systemic inflammation observed in patients with HIV (PWH) on long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to explore mechanisms of such activation. DESIGN: Forty-two PWH on long-term suppressive ART (HIV-RNA < 40 copies/ml) were compared with 10 HIV-negative healthy controls (HC). METHODS: Inflammasome activation was measured by dosing mature interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18 cytokines in patient serum. We explored inflammasome pathways through ex vivo stimulation of PWH primary monocytes with inflammasome activators; expression of inflammasome components by transcriptomic analysis; and metabolomics analysis of patient sera. RESULTS: Median (Q1; Q3) age, ART and viral suppression duration in PWH were 54 (48; 60), 15 (9; 20) and 7.5 (5; 12) years, respectively. Higher serum IL-18 was measured in PWH than in HC (61 (42; 77) vs. 36 (27-48 pg/ml), P = 0.009); IL-1ß was detected in 10/42 PWH (0.5 (0.34; 0.80) pg/ml) but not in HC. Monocytes from PWH did not produce more inflammatory cytokines in vitro , but secretion of IL-1ß in response to NOD like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome stimulation was higher than in HC. This was not explained at the transcriptional level. We found an oxidative stress molecular profile in PWH sera. CONCLUSION: HIV infection with long-term effective ART is associated with a serum inflammatory signature, including markers of inflammasome activation, and an increased activation of monocytes upon inflammasome stimulation. Other cells should be investigated as sources of inflammatory cytokines in PWH. Oxidative stress might contribute to this chronic low-grade inflammation.

Post-vaccination SARS-cov-2 infection in nursing home residents, Bordeaux, France.

OBJECTIVE: To describe COVID-19 breakthrough infections in two nursing homes (NHs) sites of active COVID-19 clusters despite optimal vaccination coverage. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two NHs of south-western France, following the investigation of COVID-19 clusters (February-March 2021). SARS-CoV-2-confirmed infection was defined by positive RT-PCR. Antibodies neutralization capacities were tested in a subgroup of fully-vaccinated and seropositive-residents. RESULTS: Of the 152 residents, 66% were female with median age 87 years (IQR: 80.0-90.2). Overall, 132 (87%) residents received 2 doses of vaccine, 14 (9%) one dose and 6 (4%) were unvaccinated. Forty-seven (31%) residents had confirmed infection (45 (98%) with variant 20I/501Y.V1). All 6 non-vaccinated residents, 4 /14 who had one dose and 37/132 that had two doses, were infected. Of the 39 residents reporting symptoms, 12 and 3 presented severe and critical disease, respectively. One resident with a confirmed infection died. Infected-residents had a median anti-S IgG titre of 19 116.0 (IQR: 3 028.0-39 681.8 AU/mL), 19 times higher than that of non-infected vaccinated persons (1,207.0; IQR: 494.0-2,782.0). In the subgroup of 19 residents tested for neutralizing antibodies, the neutralizing titre (50%) was strongly positively correlated with the anti-S IgG titre (correlation coefficient = 0.83), and 1.5 times higher for the infected than non-infected residents [5.9 (IQR: 5.3-6.9) vs. 3.6 (2.9-3.8)]. CONCLUSION: Institutionalized elderly persons who undergo breakthrough infection develop higher titres of anti-S IgGs, which are strongly correlated with the neutralizing capacity of the antibodies. These results advocate for additional vaccine doses in this population.

Comparison of methods to quantify inducible HIV-1 outgrowth.

The quantitative viral outgrowth assay (qVOA) is the gold standard for measuring inducible, replication-competent HIV-1. Using MOLT4-R5 and SupT1-R5 cell lines instead of allogeneic blasts and HIV-1 RNA detection rather than p24 enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) has been proposed to improve the sensitivity of the qVOA. It is unclear, however, how these alternative approaches affect qVOA performance. We compared three qVOAs methods across 15 persons with HIV-1 on suppressive antiretroviral therapy and found that the MOLT4-R5 method yielded a significantly higher proportion of p24-positive wells (42%) than both the allogeneic blast (29%) and SupT1-R5 (32%) assays. Additionally, 5 of 7 qVOAs that were negative by p24 EIA showed viral outgrowth by HIV-1 RNA quantification (>10-fold increase within 7 days). These findings reveal the potential for underestimation of the latent, inducible reservoir by qVOA depending on the target cells used and the measure of viral outgrowth. Use of MOLT4-R5 cells with both p24 EIA and HIV-1 RNA to detect viral outgrowth was the most sensitive method.

A Low Level of Darunavir Resistance-Associated Mutation Emergence in Patients With Virological Failure During Long-term Use of Darunavir in People With HIV. The ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Ritonavir-boosted darunavir (DRV/r) is a protease inhibitor (PI) indicated for the treatment of naïve and pretreated HIV-infected patients since 2007. Our study aims to describe DRV/r-treated patients experiencing virological failure (VF) documented with HIV resistance testing. METHODS: Data from patients belonging to the ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort treated with a regimen including DRV/r between February 2007 and December 2015 were analyzed. Baseline characteristics of patients experiencing VF (defined by 2 consecutive plasma viral loads >50 copies/mL) were compared with those without VF. We then described factors associated with VF as emergence of IAS DRV resistance-associated mutations (RAMs). RESULTS: Among the 1458 patients treated at least once with a DRV/r-based regimen, 270 (18.5%) patients experienced VF during follow-up, including 240 with at least 1 genotype resistance test (GRT). DRV RAMs were detected in 29 patients (12%). Among them, 25/29 patients had ≥2 DRV RAMs before DRV/r initiation, all of whom had experienced VF during previous PI treatments. For 18/29, DRV/r was maintained after VF, and controlled viremia was restored after modification of DRV-associated antiretroviral molecules or increased DRV dose. Finally, only 6/29 patients selected new DRV RAMs after DRV/r initiation. All of these experienced previous VFs while on other PIs. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the efficacy and robustness of DRV/r, as the emergence of DRV RAMs appeared in <0.4% of patients receiving a DRV/r-based regimen in our large cohort.

HIV-1 viremia not suppressible by antiretroviral therapy can originate from large T cell clones producing infectious virus.

BACKGROUNDHIV-1 viremia that is not suppressed by combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) is generally attributed to incomplete medication adherence and/or drug resistance. We evaluated individuals referred by clinicians for nonsuppressible viremia (plasma HIV-1 RNA above 40 copies/mL) despite reported adherence to ART and the absence of drug resistance to the current ART regimen.METHODSSamples were collected from at least 2 time points from 8 donors who had nonsuppressible viremia for more than 6 months. Single templates of HIV-1 RNA obtained from plasma and viral outgrowth of cultured cells and from proviral DNA were amplified by PCR and sequenced for evidence of clones of cells that produced infectious viruses. Clones were confirmed by host-proviral integration site analysis.RESULTSHIV-1 genomic RNA with identical sequences were identified in plasma samples from all 8 donors. The identical viral RNA sequences did not change over time and did not evolve resistance to the ART regimen. In 4 of the donors, viral RNA sequences obtained from plasma matched those sequences from viral outgrowth cultures, indicating that the viruses were replication competent. Integration sites for infectious proviruses from those 4 donors were mapped to the introns of the MATR3, ZNF268, ZNF721/ABCA11P, and ABCA11P genes. The sizes of the clones were estimated to be from 50 million to 350 million cells.CONCLUSIONThese findings show that clones of HIV-1-infected cells producing virus can cause failure of ART to suppress viremia. The mechanisms involved in clonal expansion and persistence need to be defined to effectively target viremia and the HIV-1 reservoir.FUNDINGNational Cancer Institute, NIH; Howard Hughes Medical Research Fellows Program, Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Office of AIDS Research; American Cancer Society; National Cancer Institute through a Leidos subcontract; National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, to the I4C Martin Delaney Collaboratory; University of Rochester Center for AIDS Research and University of Rochester HIV/AIDS Clinical Trials Unit.

Input of recombinant phenotyping for the characterization of a novel acyclovir-resistance mutation identified in a patient with recurrent herpetic keratitis.

We report here a case of an immunocompetent patient suffering from recurrent epithelial herpetic keratitis associated with the emergence of antiviral resistance. Indeed, the not previously described amino acid change L340R within herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase, was shown to confer acyclovir-resistance by recombinant phenotyping using bacmid technology.

Provir/Latitude 45 study: A step towards a multi-epitopic CTL vaccine designed on archived HIV-1 DNA and according to dominant HLA I alleles.

One of the approaches by which the scientific community is seeking to cure HIV is the use of therapeutic vaccination. Previous studies have highlighted the importance of the virus-specific CD8+ T cell cytotoxic responses for the immune control of HIV and have oriented research on vaccine constructs based on CTL epitopes from circulating HIV-1 strains. The clinical trials with therapeutic vaccines to date have had limited success likely due to (i) a discrepancy between archived CTL epitopes in the viral reservoir and those in circulating viruses before antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and (ii) the lack of strong affinity between the selected CTL epitopes and the HLA grooves for presentation to CD8+ cells. To overcome these limitations, we launched the Provir/Latitude 45 study to identify conserved CTL epitopes in archived HIV-1 DNA according to the HLA class I alleles of aviremic patients, most of whom are under ART. The near full-length genomes or Gag, Pol and Nef regions of proviral DNA were sequenced by Sanger and/or Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). The HLA-A and B alleles were defined by NGS or molecular analysis. The TuTuGenetics software, which moves a sliding window of 8 to 10 amino acids through the amino acid alignment, was combined with the Immune Epitope Data Base (IEDB) to automatically calculate the theoretical binding affinity of identified epitopes to the HLA alleles for each individual. We identified 15 conserved epitopes in Pol (11), Gag (3), and Nef (1) according to their potential presentation by the dominant HLA-A and B alleles and now propose to use the corresponding conserved peptides in a multi-epitopic vaccine (HLA-fitted VAC, HFVAC).

Therapeutic Vaccine Against HIV, Viral Variability, Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Epitopes, and Genetics of Patients.

The scientific and medical community is seeking to cure HIV. Several pathways have been or are being explored including therapeutic vaccination. Viroimmunological studies on primary infection as well as on elite controllers have demonstrated the importance of the cytotoxic CD8 response and have mainly oriented research on vaccine constructs toward this type of response. The results of these trials are clearly not commensurate with the hope placed in them. Might there be one or more uncontrolled variables? The genetics of patients need to be taken into consideration, especially their human lymphocyte antigen (HLA) alleles. There is a need to find a balance between the conservation of cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes and presentation by HLA alleles. The pathway is a narrow one between adaptation of the virus to HLA I restriction and the definition of conserved proviral CTL epitopes presentable by HLA I alleles. It is likely that the genetics of patients will need to be considered for HIV-1 vaccine studies and that multidisciplinary collaboration will be essential in this field of infectious diseases.

Diversity of HIV-1 in Aquitaine, Southwestern France, 2012-2016.

We have estimated the prevalence of the different viral subtypes between January 2012 and December 2016 in HIV-1-infected patients of the Aquitaine region (southwest part of France) who had a routine HIV-1 genotype resistance testing (GRT) centralized at the Bordeaux University Hospital. GRT was performed on viral RNA (1,784 samples) before treatment initiation or at failure, whereas proviral DNA was used as template (1,420 samples) in the event of a treatment switch in patients with viral load below 50 copies/mL. Pol and integrase sequences were obtained; subtypes, circulating recombinant forms (CRFs), and unique recombinant forms (URFs) were assigned by combining the results of SCUEAL, REGA, COMET, and HIV BLAST. Globally, subtype B was predominant with 71.7%, whereas non-B subtypes accounted for 28.3%. Within the non-B viruses, CRF02_AG was the most prominent (11.6%) followed by non-B non-URF (13.5%), A, CRF01_AE, G, CRF06_cpx, F, C, D, H, J, and finally URF (3.2%). The analysis of the two compartments separately showed that RNA exhibits higher percentages of non-B viruses than DNA. This study reveals a high degree of diversity of HIV-1 non-B subtype strains in Aquitaine, with an increasing prevalence of CRF02_AG and URF in the population investigated for viral RNA, that is, including more recently detected HIV-1-infected patients. Future studies should attempt to identify the transmission clusters while paying special attention to URF, since they seem to be increasing in the population and could potentially host CRF.