Purification of human interleukin 2 to apparent homogeneity and its molecular heterogeneity.

Interleukin 2 (IL-2), produced with and without co-stimulation by the Burkitt's lymphoma line Daudi, was purified 37,000-fold to apparent homogeneity from lymphocyte conditioned medium by (NH4)2SO4 precipitation, DEAE-cellulose ion-exchange chromatography, gel filtration, and chromatography on blue agarose and on Procion-red agarose. The purified IL-2 showed a 10(6) U/mg protein sp act. IL-2 produced in the absence of Daudi cells had a mol wt of 26,000 as measured by gel filtration and an isoelectric point of 6.7. This IL-2 showed a 16,000 and 17,000 mol wt in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). IL-2, produced in the presence of Daudi cells (10(6)/ml), showed a mol wt of approximately 14,000, as measured by both gel filtration and SDS-PAGE, and an isoelectric point of 8.1. The purified IL-2 lacked detectable interferon (alpha and gamma), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, B cell growth factor, T cell-replacing factor, and thymocyte-differentiating activity and was free of any contaminating proteins as judged by silver staining in SDS-PAGE. All three molecular forms of IL-2 were biologically active at concentrations of 10(-11) - 10(-10) M, supporting the growth of human and murine cytotoxic T cell lines.

The expression of the interleukin 6 gene is induced by the human immunodeficiency virus 1 TAT protein.

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV1) infection is associated with severe psoriasis, B cell lymphoma, and Kaposi's sarcoma. A deregulated production of interleukin 6 (IL-6) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of these diseases. The molecular mechanisms underlying the abnormal IL-6 secretion of HIV1-infected cells may include transactivation of the IL-6 gene by HIV1. To test this hypothesis, we used the pIL6Pr-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) plasmid, an IL-6 promoter-CAT construct, as a target of the transactivating function of the HIV1 TAT protein. By cotransfecting the pIL6Pr-CAT and the tat-expressing pSVT8 plasmid in MC3 B-lymphoblastoid or in HeLa epithelial cells, we observed that TAT transactivates the human IL-6 promoter. These results were confirmed when pIL6Pr-CAT was transfected in MC3 or HeLa cells that constitutively expressed the tat gene in a sense (pSVT8 cells) or antisense (pSVT10 cells) orientation. 5' deletion plasmids of pIL6Pr-CAT, in which regions at -658, -287, and -172 were inserted 5' to the cat gene, were transiently transfected in pSVT10 and pSVT8 cells and showed that TAT-induced activation of the IL-6 promoter required a minimal region located between -287 and -54 bp. Moreover, experiments with plasmids carrying the -658, -287, and -172 bp regions of the IL-6 promoter inserted downstream to a TAR-deleted HIV1-LTR identified the sequence of -172 to -54 as the minimal region of the IL-6 promoter required for TAT to transactivate the TAR-deleted HIV1-LTR. By DNA-protein binding experiments, tat-transfected cells expressed a consistent increase in kappa B and nuclear factor (NF)-IL-6 binding activity. Accordingly, the pDRCAT and IL-1REK9CAT, carrying tandem repeats of NF-kappa B or NF-IL6 binding motifs, respectively, were activated in TAT-expressing cells. The biological relevance of the TAT-induced IL-6 secretion was addressed by generating 7TD1 cells, an IL-6-dependent mouse cell line, stably expressing the tat gene. These tat-positive cells expressed the endogenous IL-6 gene, secreted high amounts of murine IL-6, and grew efficiently in the absence of exogenous IL-6. Moreover, the tat-positive 7TD1 cells sustained the growth of parental 7TD1 cells and showed a dramatic increase in their tumorigenic potency. These results suggest that TAT protein may play a role in the pathogenesis of some HIV1-associated diseases by modulating the expression of host cellular genes.

Expression of an exogenous interleukin 6 gene in human Epstein Barr virus B cells confers growth advantage and in vivo tumorigenicity.

The biological role of interleukin 6 (IL-6) molecules in human B cell tumorigenesis was studied by using an episomal expression vector, pHEBoSV-IL6, to introduce stably the human IL-6 gene into human Epstein Barr virus (EBV)-transformed B lymphoblasts. The gene was present in the IL-6-transfected cells in a high copy number and was efficiently expressed, resulting in the secretion of consistent levels of IL-6 molecules. The constitutive expression of the IL-6 gene led to an altered pattern of growth and to a malignant phenotype, as shown by clonogenicity in to an altered pattern of growth and to a malignant phenotype, as shown by clonogenicity in soft agar cultures and tumorigenicity in nude mice. These data suggest that the combined action of EBV, which exerts an immortalizing function, and of the growth-promoting activity of IL-6 molecules, can give rise to fully transformed B cell tumors in immunodeficient subjects.

C-Raf antagonizes apoptosis induced by IFN-alpha in human lung cancer cells by phosphorylation and increase of the intracellular content of elongation factor 1A.

Interferon alpha (IFNalpha) induces both apoptosis and a counteracting epidermal growth factor Erk-dependent survival response in cancer cells. In this report, IFNalpha increased eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF-1A) protein expression by inhibition of eEF-1A degradation via a proteasome-dependent pathway. The reduction of the expression level of eEF-1A by RNA interference enhanced the apoptosis induced by IFNalpha on the same cells. Moreover, IFNalpha induced the phosphorylation of both serine and threonine in eEF-1A. These effects were paralleled by an increased co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization of eEF-1A with C-Raf. The suppression of C-Raf kinase activity with the inhibitor BAY 43-9006 completely antagonized the increase of both eEF-1A phosphorylation and expression and of C-Raf/eEF-1A colocalization induced by IFNalpha and enhanced apoptosis and eEF-1A ubiquitination. Cell transfection with the mutated K48R ubiquitin increased EF-1A expression and desensitized tumor cells to the modulating effects of IFNalpha. The dynamic simulation of 3Dstructure of eEF-1A identified putative serine and threonine phosphorylation sites. In conclusion, the interaction between eEF-1A and C-Raf increases eEF-1A stability and induces a survival activity.

Targeting Raf-kinase: molecular rationales and translational issues.

Target-based therapy has been a promising anti-cancer strategy in the preclinical setting, but its efficacy is still limited in clinical practice. The latter was probably due to the lack of identification of molecular targets in order to predict clinical response and for the existence of multiple survival compensatory downstream pathways. Therefore, the use of downstream targets could be useful in order to avoid these overcoming pathways. One of these targets is Raf-kinase. In this review we describe the structure and functions of the components of Raf-kinase family and their relevance in proliferation and survival of tumor cells. Moreover, we illustrate the signal transduction pathways regulated by Raf-kinases. The main preclinical and clinical results obtained with the use of the Raf-kinase inhibitor BAY 43-9006 or sorafenib are also described. The multi-target function of sorafenib is also explained and the disclosure of new therapeutic opportunities based on the dual inhibition of cancer proliferation and neo-angiogenesis is discussed. In conclusion, Raf-kinase appears an appealing therapeutic target, even it other preclinical and clinical studies are warranted in order to evaluate the activity of sorafenib both in monotherapy and in combination with other agents.

Partial purification and MALDI-TOF MS analysis of UN1, a tumor antigen membrane glycoprotein.

UN1 is a membrane glycoprotein that is expressed in immature human thymocytes, a subpopulation of peripheral T lymphocytes, the HPB acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) T-cell line and fetal thymus. We previously reported the isolation of a monoclonal antibody (UN1 mAb) recognizing the UN1 protein that was classified as "unclustered" at the 5th and 6th International Workshop and Conference on Human Leukocyte Differentiation Antigens. UN1 was highly expressed in breast cancer tissues and was undetected in non-proliferative lesions and in normal breast tissues, indicating a role for UN1 in the development of a tumorigenic phenotype of breast cancer cells. In this study, we report a partial purification of the UN1 protein from HPB-ALL T cells by anion-exchange chromatography followed by immunoprecipitation with the UN1 mAb and MALDI-TOF MS analysis. This analysis should assist in identifying the amino acid sequence of UN1.

Effects of glucose starvation on normal and rous sarcoma virus-transformed chick cells.

We studied the effect of glucose starvation on glucose uptake and thymidine uptake and incorporation in cultures of normal chicken embryo cells and those transformed by Rous sarcoma virus. Resting normal fibroblasts increased the rate of glucose transport up to tenfold when they were starved for glucose, whereas fast-growing normal cells doubled the rate of uptake after starvation. Transformed cells did not show any change in the rate of glucose uptake during starvation. Thymidine uptake and incorporation by normal and transformed cells were not affected by glucose starvation. These results showed that a decrease in the glucose concentration of the medium induced a specific increase in the rate of glucose transport by normal chick fibroblasts, but did not change the transport of glucose by transformed cells. Therefore, it is suggested that glucose or one of its metabolic products regulated the hexose uptake of normal chick fibroblasts. Virus-transformed cells were insensitive to this regulation.

Transferrin-like autocrine growth factor, derived from T-lymphoma cells, that inhibits normal T-cell proliferation.

Transferrin, the major iron-binding protein in the plasma of vertebrate species, is an essential growth factor for cells in serum free medium. We have established a cell line, Fr, from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of a patient affected by Sézary syndrome. Fr cells show a very immature antigenic phenotype, while constitutively bearing transferrin receptor on their surface. Furthermore the Fr line does not produce or respond to interleukin 2. Finally its conditioned medium contains both a growth stimulating activity for the Fr cell line and a factor which inhibits T-lymphocyte proliferation. We have identified a protein, produced in large amounts by Fr cells, which shares the immunological properties of human transferrin. Our data suggest that this transferrin-like factor can act as an autocrine growth factor for the producer cells and as an inhibitory factor for normal lymphocytes.

EGF activates an inducible survival response via the RAS-> Erk-1/2 pathway to counteract interferon-alpha-mediated apoptosis in epidermoid cancer cells.

The mechanisms of tumor cell resistance to interferon-alpha (IFNalpha) are at present mostly unsolved. We have previously demonstrated that IFNalpha induces apoptosis on epidermoid cancer cells and EGF antagonizes this effect. We have also found that IFNalpha-induced apoptosis depends upon activation of the NH(2)-terminal Jun kinase-1 (Jnk-1) and p(38) mitogen-activated protein kinase, and that these effects are also antagonized by EGF. At the same time, IFNalpha increases the expression and function of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R). Here we report that the apoptosis induced by IFNalpha occurs together with activation of caspases 3, 6 and 8 and that EGF also antagonizes this effect. On the basis of these results, we have hypothesized that the increased EGF-R expression and function could represent an inducible survival response that might protect tumor cells from apoptosis caused by IFNalpha via extracellular signal regulated kinase 1 and 2 (Erk-1/2) cascades. We have found an increased activity of Ras and Raf-1 in IFNalpha-treated cells. Moreover, IFNalpha induces a 50% increase of the phosphorylated isoforms and enzymatic activity of Erk-1/2. We have also demonstrated that the inhibition of Ras activity induced by the transfection of the dominant negative Ras plasmid RASN17 and the inhibition of Mek-1 with PD098059 strongly potentiates the apoptosis induced by IFNalpha. Moreover, the selective inhibition of this pathway abrogates the counteracting effect of EGF on the IFNalpha-induced apoptosis. All these findings suggest that epidermoid tumor cells counteract the IFNalpha-induced apoptosis through a survival pathway that involves the hyperactivation of the EGF-dependent Ras->Erk signalling. The selective targeting of this pathway appears to be a promising approach in order to enhance the antitumor activity of IFNalpha.

Antitumor therapeutic strategies based on the targeting of epidermal growth factor-induced survival pathways.

Cellular receptors for the Epidermal Growth Factor are considered important targets for the experimental treatment of human cancer. Monoclonal antibodies as well as small tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been developed and have undergone extensive evaluation in preclinical and clinical studies. Most of these studies have been conceived on the general idea that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays a critical role on the growth and survival of human tumors. This assumption has been derived by the successful development of BCR/ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors in human chronic myeloid leukemia as well as on the activity of antiCD20 monoclonal antibodies in lymphoproliferative disease and of anti HER2 agents in breast tumors overexpressing the targeted antigens. It is now becoming clear that factors regulating sensitivity to kinase inhibitors may differ from monoclonal antibodies and that the molecules targeted by interferring drugs must be prioritaire for growth and survival of those specific tumors in order to achieve valuable results. Recent evidence of major responses to the EGFR inhibitor Gefitinib in tumors harboring activating mutations in the EGFR appears on line with this concept. In this article we will discuss the significance of targeting the EGFR driven survival pathways. Specifically, we will afford the point of EGFR survival signalling prioritization by means of pharmacological treatment. Finally, we will address the role of profiling technologies and of novel computational system biology-based approaches for identification of innovative strategies for effective targeting of EGFR driven survival pathways.

Frequency and irradiation time-dependant antiproliferative effect of low-power millimeter waves on RPMI 7932 human melanoma cell line.

The biological effects produced by low power millimeter waves (MMW) were studied on the RPMI 7932 human melanoma cell line. Three different frequency-type irradiation modes were used: the 53.57-78.33 GHz wide-band frequency range, the 51.05 GHz and the 65.00 GHz monochromatic frequencies. In all three irradiation conditions, the radiation energy was low enough not to increase the temperature of the cellular samples. Three hours of radiation treatment, applied every day to the melanoma cell samples, were performed at each frequency exposure condition. The wide-band irradiation treatment effectively inhibited cell growth, while both the monochromatic irradiation treatments did not affect the growth trend of RPMI 7932 cells. A light microscopy analysis revealed that the low-intensity wide-band millimeter radiation induced significant morphological alterations on these cells. Furthermore, a histochemical study revealed the low proliferative state of the irradiated cells. This work provides further evidence of the antiproliferative effects on tumor cells induced by low power MMW in the 50-80 GHz frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

NF-kappaB/Rel-mediated regulation of apoptosis in hematologic malignancies and normal hematopoietic progenitors.

The activity of NF-kappaB/Rel transcription factors can downmodulate apoptosis in normal and neoplastic cells of the hematologic and other compartments, contributing in maintaining neoplastic clone survival and impairing response to therapy. Alterations in nfkappab or ikappaB genes are documented in some hematologic neoplasias, while in others dysfunction in NF-kappaB/Rel-activating signaling pathways can be recognized. The prosurvival properties of NF-kappaB/Rel appear to rely on the induced expression of molecules (caspase inhibitors, Bcl2 protein family members, etc.), which interfere with the apoptosis pathway. Constitutive NF-kappaB/Rel activity in some hematologic malignancies could be advantageous for neoplastic clone expansion by counteracting stress stimuli (consumption of growth factors and metabolites) and immune system-triggered apoptosis; it is furthermore likely to play a central role in determining resistance to therapy. Based on this evidence, NF-kappaB/Rel-blocking approaches have been introduced in antineoplastic strategies. The identification of NF-kappaB/Rel target genes relevant for survival in specific neoplasias is required in order to address tailored therapies and avoid possible detrimental effects due to widespread NF-kappaB/Rel inhibition. Moreover, comparative analyses of normal hematopoietic progenitors and neoplastic cell sensitivities to inhibitors of NF-kappaB/Rel and their target genes will allow to evaluate the impact of these tools on normal bone marrow.

T cell growth-promoting activity of interferon-gamma. Mitogenic effect of the recombinant cytokine on cells from a human T-chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) has previously been described as exerting a growth factor activity for murine and human stimulated normal T lymphocytes, in addition to its established role in regulating the cytotoxic activity of T and NK cells. We analyzed the effect of human recombinant IFN-gamma on the proliferation of leukemic lymphocytes isolated from the peripheral blood of a patient affected by a T-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (T-CLL). Incubation with IFN-gamma induced the proliferation of unstimulated leukemic cells. Cell proliferation was maximal after 6 days of culture with the cytokine; the half-maximal effect of IFN-gamma was observed at a concentration of approximately 800 U/ml. We also measured the production of IFN-gamma by leukemic cells. Cells incubated in control medium released small quantities of IFN-gamma activity, while the addition of low doses of the exogenous cytokine to the cell cultures induced high levels of IFN-gamma mRNA and protein production. Furthermore, anti-HLA class I monoclonal antibodies, that exert a mitogenic effect on these neoplastic lymphocytes, also induced the IFN-gamma gene expression in the same cells. These results indicate that IFN-gamma may stimulate the proliferation of human neoplastic T cells and suggest that this cytokine might have a role in the expansion of T-leukemic cell clones in vivo.

Growth inhibition and synergistic induction of apoptosis by zoledronate and dexamethasone in human myeloma cell lines.

Bisphosphonates (BPs) are commonly used in the treatment of myeloma-associated osteolytic lesions. Recent reports have suggested that BPs may also exert direct antitumor effects on myeloma cells. Here, we show that the treatment of myeloma cell lines with the combination of the potent BP zoledronate and dexamethasone inhibits cell growth and synergistically induces apoptotic cell death, providing a rationale for potential applications in vivo.

Evidence of a founder mutation of BRCA1 in a highly homogeneous population from southern Italy with breast/ovarian cancer.

Several genes have been involved in the pathogenesis of hereditary breast/ovarian cancer (BOC), but mutations in the BRCA1 gene are by far the most recurrent. In this study, we report the identification of a founder mutation in a geographically and historically homogeneous population from Calabria, a south Italian region. A screening performed on 24 patients from unrelated families highlighted the high prevalence of a 5083del19 alteration in the BRCA1 gene, which accounts for 33% of the overall gene mutations. The same mutation was also detected in 4 patients, all of Calabrian origin, referred to us by research centres from the north of Italy. Allelotype analysis, performed on probands and unaffected family members revealed the presence a common allele, therefore suggesting a founder effect due to a common ancestor. Our findings underscore the importance of ethnic background homogeneity in patients' selection and highlight the usefulness of founder mutations as a potential tool for optimisation of preclinical diagnosis in gene carriers and therapeutic approaches in affected individuals.

Differential expression of surface membrane growth hormone receptor on human peripheral blood lymphocytes detected by dual fluorochrome flow cytometry.

Although several reports indicate proliferative and functional effects of human GH (hGH) on peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL), no information is available about hGH receptor (GHR) expression in PBL subsets. Here, the surface membrane GHR levels were investigated in different human PBL subpopulations using a fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated monoclonal antibody specific for the GHR (mAb263) in dual fluorochrome flow cytometric assays. Strong GHR expression was found in B-cells (CD20+), whereas CD2+ lymphocytes, including T-cells as well as natural killer cells, exhibited considerably lower levels of receptor expression. Similarly, using FITC-labeled recombinant hGH, receptor expression on CD20+ cells was significantly higher than that on CD2+ cells. Abundant expression of GHR in B-lymphocytes was confirmed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis of GHR messenger ribonucleic acid from isolated B-cells. Accordingly, the B-cell merits greater consideration as a GH target cell. The use of FITC-labeled mAb263 and hGH is of potential use for the study of GHR levels in patients exhibiting different types of growth disorders. Because of its high specificity for GHR, FITC-labeled mAb263 is also of considerable value for specifically demonstrating the presence of GHR, because hGH may interact with and act through PRL receptor, as shown previously in human neutrophils.

Transcriptional regulation of the mismatch repair gene hMLH1.

We have characterized the promoter region of the human gene coding for the MLH1 mismatch repair protein. The total transcriptional activity of the hMLH1 promoter is driven by two positive cis-elements included between nucleotides -300 and -220. The upstream element is a canonical CCAAT box, and it is recognized by the heterotrimeric transcription factor NF-Y. On the other hand, the downstream element is recognized by a nuclear factor of about 120 kDa. Variations in hMLH1 intracellular levels may influence the surveillance of the genome integrity. The identification of the two elements may shad some light on the regulation of the transcriptional regulation of hMLH1 expression.

Oxaliplatin (L-OHP) treatment of human myeloma cells induces in vitro growth inhibition and apoptotic cell death.

Oxaliplatin (L-OHP), a diaminocyclohexane platinum derivative, is an active and well tolerated anticancer drug which is presently used in the treatment of gastrointestinal tumours. Since the efficacy of L-OHP in the treatment of multiple myeloma (MM) has not yet been evaluated, we studied the antiproliferative activity of this compound in vitro in a panel of MM cell lines (XG1, XG1a, U266 and IM-9). We found that L-OHP inhibited the growth of MM cells at therapeutically achievable concentrations (IC(50): 5-10 microM after 24 h of exposure) and was more active than Cisplatin (CDDP) or Carboplatin (CBDCA). The activity of L-OHP was apparently not affected by interleukin-6 (IL-6), the major growth and survival factor of MM cells. We also found that L-OHP induced apoptotic cell death. We demonstrated that the combination of L-OHP with Dexamethasone (Dex) resulted in the enhancement of the anti-myeloma effects. L-OHP and Dex both induced poly adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage and this induction was enhanced by the combined treatment. L-OHP-induced apoptosis correlated with caspase-3 cleavage, but this correlation could not be demonstrated in Dex-treated cells. Taken together, these in vitro results provide a rationale for the experimental use of L-OHP in the treatment of MM patients and suggest therapeutic combinations of potential value.

A novel monoclonal antibody recognizing human thymocytes and B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells.

This paper describes a new murine monoclonal antibody, UN5, raised against human thymocytes. This antibody recognizes a molecule of approximately 45 kDa on thymocytes. Flow cytometric analysis reveals a high intensity of labeling with the majority of thymocytes, whereas only CD20+ cells from peripheral whole-blood samples are weakly stained. Peripheral T cells, granulocytes, platelets and red blood cells do not express this antigen, while monocytes are only weakly labeled by UN5. Furthermore, the UN5 antibody discriminates between different types of B-cell malignancies, reacting with a subgroup of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemias and hairy cell leukemias, but not with the other kinds of hematopoietic malignancies tested. Antibody UN5 should prove a useful tool for the study of T-cell precursors and for analysis of both normal and neoplastic B cells.

The eukaryotic initiation factor 5A is involved in the regulation of proliferation and apoptosis induced by interferon-alpha and EGF in human cancer cells.

Interferon-alpha (IFNalpha) can induce apoptosis, a process regulated by a complex network of cell factors. Among these, eukaryotic initiation factor-5A (eIF-5A) is peculiar because its activity is modulated by the post-translational formation of the amino acid hypusine. Here we report the effects of IFNalpha and epidermal growth factor (EGF) on apoptosis and eIF-5A activity in human epidermoid oropharyngeal KB and lung H1355 cancer cells. We found that 48-h exposure to 1000 and 2000 IU/ml IFNalpha induced about 50% growth inhibition and apoptosis in H1355 and KB cells, respectively, and the addition of EGF completely antagonized this effect. When IFNalpha induced apoptosis, a hyperactivation of MEK-1 and ERK signalling and a decrease of the hypusine-containing form and, thus, of eIF-5A activity were recorded. The latter effect was again antagonized by the addition of EGF to IFNalpha-pretreated cells, probably through the activation of the EGF-->ERK-dependent pathway, since the addition of the specific MEK-1 inhibitor PD098059 abrogated the recovery of intracellular hypusine content induced by EGF in IFNalpha-pretreated cancer cells. Subsequently, we evaluated if the hypusine synthesis inhibitor (and eIF-5A inactivator) N1-guanyl-1,7-diaminoheptane (GC7) synergized with IFNalpha in the induction of cell growth inhibition and apoptosis. The analysis of the isobologram of IFNalpha and GC7 demonstrated a strong synergism between the two drugs in inducing cell growth inhibition. We also found that GC7 and IFNalpha had a synergistic effect on apoptosis. These data suggest that the apoptosis induced by IFNalpha could be regulated by eIF-5A that, therefore, could represent a useful target for the potentiation of IFNalpha antitumor activity.