Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise.

When tracking multiple moving targets among visually similar distractors, human observers are capable of distributing attention over several spatial locations. It is unclear, however, whether capacity limitations or perceptual-cognitive abilities are responsible for the development of expertise in multiple object tracking. Across two experiments, we examined the role of working memory and visual attention in tracking expertise. In Experiment 1, individuals who regularly engaged in object tracking sports (soccer and rugby) displayed improved tracking performance, relative to non-tracking sports (swimming, rowing, running) (p = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.163), but no differences in gaze strategy (ps > 0.31). In Experiment 2, participants trained on an adaptive object tracking task showed improved tracking performance (p = 0.005, d = 0.817), but no changes in gaze strategy (ps > 0.07). They did, however, show significant improvement in a working memory transfer task (p < 0.001, d = 0.970). These findings indicate that the development of tracking expertise is more closely linked to processing capacity limits than perceptual-cognitive strategies.

Virtually the same? How impaired sensory information in virtual reality may disrupt vision for action.

Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for expanding the possibilities of psychological experimentation and implementing immersive training applications. Despite a recent surge in interest, there remains an inadequate understanding of how VR impacts basic cognitive processes. Due to the artificial presentation of egocentric distance cues in virtual environments, a number of cues to depth in the optic array are impaired or placed in conflict with each other. Moreover, realistic haptic information is all but absent from current VR systems. The resulting conflicts could impact not only the execution of motor skills in VR but also raise deeper concerns about basic visual processing, and the extent to which virtual objects elicit neural and behavioural responses representative of real objects. In this brief review, we outline how the novel perceptual environment of VR may affect vision for action, by shifting users away from a dorsal mode of control. Fewer binocular cues to depth, conflicting depth information and limited haptic feedback may all impair the specialised, efficient, online control of action characteristic of the dorsal stream. A shift from dorsal to ventral control of action may create a fundamental disparity between virtual and real-world skills that has important consequences for how we understand perception and action in the virtual world.

Perceptual-cognitive expertise when refereeing the scrum in rugby union.

Compared to sports performers, relatively little is known about how sports officials make decisions at a perceptual-cognitive level. Thus, this study examined the decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour of rugby union referees of varying skill levels while reviewing scrum scenarios. Elite (n = 9) and trainee (n = 9) referees, as well as experienced players (n = 9), made decisions while watching ten projected scrum clips and wearing a mobile eye-tracker. Decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour were recorded for each scrum. The elite and trainee referees made more accurate decisions than the players, and differences in gaze behavior were observed. The elite and trainee referees displayed lower search rates, spent more time fixating central-pack (i.e., front rows, binds, and contact point) and less time fixating outer-pack (e.g., second rows) and non-pack (e.g., other) locations, and exhibited lower entropy than the players. While search rate failed to predict decision-making accuracy, the time spent fixating central-, outer-, and non-pack locations, as well as entropy, were significant predictors. The findings have implications for training perceptual-cognitive skill among sports officials.

A randomised trial of observational learning from 2D and 3D models in robotically assisted surgery.

BACKGROUND: Advances in 3D technology mean that both robotic surgical devices and surgical simulators can now incorporate stereoscopic viewing capabilities. While depth information may benefit robotic surgical performance, it is unclear whether 3D viewing also aids skill acquisition when learning from observing others. As observational learning plays a major role in surgical skills training, this study aimed to evaluate whether 3D viewing provides learning benefits in a robotically assisted surgical task. METHODS: 90 medical students were assigned to either (1) 2D or (2) 3D observation of a consultant surgeon performing a training task on the daVinci S robotic system, or (3) a no observation control, in a randomised parallel design. Subsequent performance and instrument movement metrics were assessed immediately following observation and at one-week retention. RESULTS: Both 2D and 3D groups outperformed no observation controls following the observation intervention (ps < 0.05), but there was no difference between 2D and 3D groups at any of the timepoints. There was also no difference in movement parameters between groups. CONCLUSIONS: While 3D viewing systems may have beneficial effects for surgical performance, these results suggest that depth information has limited utility during observational learning of surgical skills in novices. The task constraints and end goals may provide more important information for learning than the relative motion of surgical instruments in 3D space.

Flow and quiet eye: the role of attentional control in flow experience.

This report was designed to investigate the role of effective attention control in flow states, by developing an experimental approach to the study of flow. A challenge-skill balance manipulation was applied to self-paced netball and basketball shooting tasks, with point of gaze recorded through mobile eye tracking. Quiet eye was used to index optimal control of visual attention. While the experimental manipulation was found to have no effect, quiet eye was associated with the experience of flow. Furthermore, mediation revealed an indirect effect of quiet eye on performance through flow experience. This study provides initial evidence that flow may be preceded by changes in visual attention, suggesting that further investigation of visual attention may elucidate the cognitive mechanisms behind flow experience.

Aiming to Deceive: Examining the Role of the Quiet Eye During Deceptive Aiming Actions.

In three experiments, we explored the use of deceptive gaze in soccer penalty takers using eye-tracking equipment. In Experiment 1, players competed against a goalkeeper while taking unconstrained shots. Results indicated that when players used deception (looking to the opposite side to which they shot), they extended the duration of their final aiming (quiet eye) fixation and maintained shooting accuracy. In Experiment 2, with no goalkeeper present, players still used extended quiet-eye durations when using a deceptive strategy, but this time, their accuracy suffered. In Experiment 3, we manipulated the goalkeeper's location while controlling for the use of peripheral vision and memory of goal size. Results indicated that increased quiet-eye durations were required when using deceptive aiming, and that accuracy was influenced by the position of the goalkeeper. We conclude that during deceptive aiming, soccer players maintain accuracy by covertly processing information related to the goalkeeper's location.

Working memory capacity, controlled attention and aiming performance under pressure.

This study explored the possibility that individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) could predict those individuals who would experience attentional disruptions and performance decrements under pressure. Two WMC groups performed a Stroop handgun task under counterbalanced conditions of threat whilst wearing eye-tracking equipment that measured visual search activity and quiet eye (QE) aiming duration. Performance was measured in terms of shooting accuracy. Low-WMC individuals experienced impaired visual search time to locate the target and reduced QE durations when shooting at incongruent target words. Furthermore, the low-WMC group experienced significant reductions in shooting accuracy when anxious. Conversely, high-WMC individuals experienced no significant differences in attentional control or performance across congruency or threat conditions. Results support the suggestion that WMC is not only a good predictor of an individual's ability to control their attention but can also predict those likely to fail under pressure.

The Quiet Eye Provides Preplanning and Online Control Support for Interceptive Task Performance.

Longer quiet eye (QE) periods are associated with better performance across a range of targeting and interceptive tasks. However, the direction of this relationship is still unclear. The two studies presented aimed to narrow this knowledge gap by experimentally manipulating QE duration-by delaying its onset or by truncating its offset-in an aiming interceptive task. In Experiment 1, the early trajectory was occluded, causing significantly shorter QE durations and worse subsequent performance. In Experiment 2, both early and/or late trajectory were occluded. Performance was degraded by the occlusion of either early or late information, and the worst performance occurred when both the early and late trajectory were occluded. Taken together, the results suggest that QE is not a by-product of performance but instead plays a causal role in supporting the interception of a moving target through a combination of preprogramming and online control processes.

Surgeons' display reduced mental effort and workload while performing robotically assisted surgical tasks, when compared to conventional laparoscopy.

BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated the benefits of robotic surgery for the patient; however, research examining the benefits of robotic technology for the surgeon is limited. This study aimed to adopt validated measures of workload, mental effort, and gaze control to assess the benefits of robotic surgery for the surgeon. We predicted that the performance of surgical training tasks on a surgical robot would require lower investments of workload and mental effort, and would be accompanied by superior gaze control and better performance, when compared to conventional laparoscopy. METHODS: Thirty-two surgeons performed two trials on a ball pick-and-drop task and a rope-threading task on both robotic and laparoscopic systems. Measures of workload (the surgery task load index), mental effort (subjective: rating scale for mental effort and objective: standard deviation of beat-to-beat intervals), gaze control (using a mobile eye movement recorder), and task performance (completion time and number of errors) were recorded. RESULTS: As expected, surgeons performed both tasks more quickly and accurately (with fewer errors) on the robotic system. Self-reported measures of workload and mental effort were significantly lower on the robotic system compared to the laparoscopic system. Similarly, an objective cardiovascular measure of mental effort revealed lower investment of mental effort when using the robotic platform relative to the laparoscopic platform. Gaze control distinguished the robotic from the laparoscopic systems, but not in the predicted fashion, with the robotic system associated with poorer (more novice like) gaze control. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the benefits of robotic technology for surgical operators. Specifically, they suggest that tasks can be performed more proficiently, at a lower workload, and with the investment of less mental effort, this may allow surgeons greater cognitive resources for dealing with other demands such as communication, decision-making, or periods of increased complexity in the operating room.

Reappraising Threat: How to Optimize Performance Under Pressure.

Competitive situations often hinge on one pressurized moment. In these situations, individuals' psychophysiological states determine performance, with a challenge state associated with better performance than a threat state. But what can be done if an individual experiences a threat state? This study examined one potential solution: arousal reappraisal. Fifty participants received either arousal reappraisal or control instructions before performing a pressurized, single-trial, motor task. Although both groups initially displayed cardiovascular responses consistent with a threat state, the reappraisal group displayed a cardiovascular response more reflective of a challenge state (relatively higher cardiac output and/or lower total peripheral resistance) after the reappraisal manipulation. Furthermore, despite performing similarly at baseline, the reappraisal group outperformed the control group during the pressurized task. The results demonstrate that encouraging individuals to interpret heightened physiological arousal as a tool that can help maximize performance can result in more adaptive cardiovascular responses and motor performance under pressure.

Assessing visual control during simulated and live operations: gathering evidence for the content validity of simulation using eye movement metrics.

BACKGROUND: Although virtual reality (VR) simulators serve an important role in the training and assessment of surgeons, they need to be evaluated for evidence of validity. Eye-tracking technology and measures of visual control have been used as an adjunct to the performance parameters produced by VR simulators to help in objectively establishing the construct validity (experts vs. novices) of VR simulators. However, determining the extent to which VR simulators represent the real procedure and environment (content validity) has largely been a subjective process undertaken by experienced surgeons. This study aimed to examine the content validity of a VR transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) simulator by comparing visual control metrics taken during simulated and real TURP procedures. METHODS: Eye-tracking data were collected from seven surgeons performing 14 simulated TURP operations and three surgeons performing 15 real TURP operations on live patients. The data were analyzed offline, and visual control metrics (number and duration of fixations, percentage of time the surgeons fixated on the screen) were calculated. RESULTS: The surgeons displayed more fixations of a shorter duration and spent less time fixating on the video monitor during the real TURP than during the simulated TURP. This could have been due to (1) the increased complexity of the operating room (OR) environment (2) the decreased quality of the image of the urethra and associated anatomy (compared with the VR simulator), or (3) the impairment of visual attentional control due to the increased levels of stress likely experienced in the OR. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the complexity of the environment surrounding VR simulators needs to be considered in the design of effective simulated training curricula. The study also provides support for the use of eye-tracking technology to assess the content validity of simulation and to examine psychomotor processes during live operations.

Beyond Rubik: The Embodiment-Presence-Interactivity Cube applied to exercise.

Evidence-based interventions are needed to promote engagement in physical activity. Audio-visual stimuli are frequently employed to enhance the exercise experience. Nonetheless, there is a paucity of research that examines the qualities of technological devices that are employed. Using the Embodiment-Presence-Interactivity Cube (Flavián et al., 2019) as a guiding conceptual framework, the aim of this registered report was to examine how each dimension of the cube (i.e., embodiment, presence and interactivity) influenced a range of exercise-related affective and perceptual variables. A counterbalanced within-subjects design was employed (N = 24). Participants completed 20-min exercise bouts on a cycle ergometer under four conditions: Television, augmented reality, 360° video and virtual reality. A repeated-measures ANOVA indicated a significant Condition × Timepoint interaction for affective valence (p = 0.046), with greater embodiment offered by technological devices leading to more positive responses. Analyses also indicated main effects of condition for exercise enjoyment, remembered pleasure and forecasted pleasure, with greater presence of technological devices leading to more positive responses. Technologies that combine high levels of embodiment, presence and interactivity (e.g., virtual reality) appear to yield several benefits in terms of in-task (e.g., affective valence) and post-task (e.g., remembered pleasure) responses for exercise conducted at ventilatory threshold.

The after-effects of occupational whole-body vibration on human cognitive, visual, and motor function: A systematic review.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) is prevalent in labour-related activities and can have adverse effects on the health and performance of the individuals exposed. However, evidence regarding the extent to which human functionality is affected following occupational WBV exposure has not been collated. The current systematic review sought to synthesize existing literature and assess the strength and direction of evidence regarding the acute after-effects of occupational WBV exposure on cognition, visual function, postural stability, and motor control. We conducted a comprehensive search of AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE, PubMED, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, SPORTDiscus, APA PsychInfo, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, HMIC, Global Health, ProQuest Central, Scopus, Web of Science, and the US National Technical Information Service on April 26, 2023. Studies that quantified vibration exposure and measured acute changes in cognition, visual function, postural stability, and motor control from baseline to post-vibration were considered without date restriction. Out of the 2663 studies identified, 32 were eligible for inclusion. Based on the Risk of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies of Exposure (ROBINS-E) tool, the studies demonstrated low (66%), moderate (25%) and high risk of bias (9%). The findings indicate that after exposure to WBV, postural stability either deteriorates or remains unchanged. Inconsistent effects of WBV on cognition were reported, while visual function and motor control showed no pronounced changes following WBV. This might be attributed to assessment limitations such as learning effects in neuropsychological and motor tasks, and non-functional measures of vision employed. There was a lack of consistency in the characterization of vibration exposure and the assessment of associated effects on functional performance. Current evidence is therefore insufficient to provide definitive guidance for updating occupational health and safety regulations regarding WBV. However, this review highlights the potential for WBV to jeopardize post-exposure human performance and, consequently, safety. The completion of the review was supported by a UKRI EPSRC training grant. The review has been registered on PROSPERO (ref CRD42023391075).

Gaze training improves the retention and transfer of laparoscopic technical skills in novices.

BACKGROUND: Gaze training is an effective way of training basic laparoscopic skills, resulting in faster acquisition periods and more robust subsequent performance under pressure. The current study is a randomized control trial which examines whether the performance benefits of gaze training stand the test of time (delayed retention) and transfer to more complex skills. METHODS: Thirty-six medical students were trained to proficiency (50 trials) on a one-handed laparoscopic task (picking and dropping balls) in either a discovery learning (DL) or gaze training (GT) group. Both groups performed the one-handed task in baseline, retention and delayed retention (1 month) tests. They also performed baseline, retention and delayed retention tests of a two-handed task (grasping and cutting). Performance (completion time) and gaze control (target locking) were assessed throughout. RESULTS: For the one-handed task, the GT group displayed superior performance at retention (p < .001), underpinned by more expert-like gaze control (p < .05). The GT group also displayed superior performance in the one-handed task at delayed retention (p < .005), underpinned by more expert-like gaze control strategies (p < .001). Although the DL group's performance fell to 84% of performance at retention, the GT group maintained performance at 100% of retention. There were no differences between the groups for the two-handed task at retention (p = .140); however, at delayed retention, the GT group outperformed the DL group (p < .005) and displayed more expert-like gaze control (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Novices trained to adopt an expert-like gaze control strategy were able to attain higher levels of performance more quickly than novices who learned by discovery alone. Furthermore, these skills were more durable over time and were transferable to more complex skills. Gaze training is a beneficial intervention to aid the acquisition of the basic motor skills required for laparoscopy.

Champ or chump? Challenge and threat states during pressurized competition.

The present research examined the immediate impact of challenge and threat states on golf performance in both real competition and a laboratory-based task. In Study 1, 199 experienced golfers reported their evaluations of competition demands and personal coping resources before a golf competition. Evaluating the competition as a challenge (i.e., sufficient resources to cope with demands) was associated with superior performance. In Study 2, 60 experienced golfers randomly received challenge or threat manipulation instructions and then performed a competitive golf-putting task. Challenge and threat states were successfully manipulated and the challenge group outperformed the threat group. Furthermore, the challenge group reported less anxiety, more facilitative interpretations of anxiety, less conscious processing, and displayed longer quiet eye durations. However, these variables failed to mediate the group-performance relationship. These studies demonstrate the importance of considering preperformance psychophysiological states when examining the influence of competitive pressure on motor performance.

The functional role of visual information and fixation stillness in the quiet eye.

The final fixation to a target in far-aiming tasks, known as the quiet eye, has been consistently identified as an important perceptual-cognitive variable for task execution. Yet, despite a number of proposed mechanisms it remains unclear whether the fixation itself is driving performance effects or is simply an emergent property of underpinning cognitions. Across two pre-registered studies, novice golfers (n = 127) completed a series of golf putts in a virtual reality simulation to examine the function of the quiet eye in the absence of visual information. In experiment 1 participants maintained a quiet eye fixation even when all visual information was occluded. Visual occlusion did significantly disrupt motor skill accuracy, but the effect was relatively small (89cm vs 105cm radial error, std. beta = 0.25). In experiment 2, a 'noisy eye' was induced using covertly moving fixation points, which disrupted skill execution (p = .04, BF = 318.07, std. beta = -0.25) even though visual input was equivalent across conditions. Overall, the results showed that performers persist with a long pre-shot fixation even in the absence of visual information, and that the stillness of this fixation confers a functional benefit that is not merely related to improved information extraction.

Can cognitive training capitalise on near transfer effects? Limited evidence of transfer following online inhibition training in a randomised-controlled trial.

Despite early promise, cognitive training research has failed to deliver consistent real-world benefits and questions have been raised about the experimental rigour of many studies. Several meta-analyses have suggested that there is little to no evidence for transfer of training from computerised tasks to real-world skills. More targeted training approaches that aim to optimise performance on specific tasks have, however, shown more promising effects. In particular, the use of inhibition training for improving shoot/don't-shoot decision-making has returned positive far transfer effects. In the present work, we tested whether an online inhibition training task could generate near and mid-transfer effects in the context of response inhibition tasks. As there has been relatively little testing of retention effects in the literature to date, we also examined whether any benefits would persist over a 1-month interval. In a pre-registered, randomised-controlled trial, participants (n = 73) were allocated to either an inhibition training programme (six training sessions of a visual search task with singleton distractor) or a closely matched active control task (that omitted the distractor element). We assessed near transfer to a Flanker task, and mid-transfer to a computerised shoot/don't-shoot task. There was evidence for a near transfer effect, but no evidence for mid-transfer. There was also no evidence that the magnitude of training improvement was related to transfer task performance. This finding adds to the growing body of literature questioning the effectiveness of cognitive training. Given previous positive findings, however, there may still be value in continuing to explore the extent to which cognitive training can capitalise on near or mid-transfer effects for performance optimisation.

Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking.

We study an individual's propensity for rational thinking; the avoidance of cognitive biases (unconscious errors generated by our mental simplification methods) using a novel augmented reality (AR) platform. Specifically, we developed an odd-one-out (OOO) game-like task in AR designed to try to induce and assess confirmatory biases. Forty students completed the AR task in the laboratory, and the short form of the comprehensive assessment of rational thinking (CART) online via the Qualtrics platform. We demonstrate that behavioural markers (based on eye, hand and head movements) can be associated (linear regression) with the short CART score - more rational thinkers have slower head and hand movements and faster gaze movements in the second more ambiguous round of the OOO task. Furthermore, short CART scores can be associated with the change in behaviour between two rounds of the OOO task (one less and one more ambiguous) - hand-eye-head coordination patterns of the more rational thinkers are more consistent in the two rounds. Overall, we demonstrate the benefits of augmenting eye-tracking recordings with additional data modalities when trying to understand complicated behaviours.

An Active Inference Account of Skilled Anticipation in Sport: Using Computational Models to Formalise Theory and Generate New Hypotheses.

Optimal performance in time-constrained and dynamically changing environments depends on making reliable predictions about future outcomes. In sporting tasks, performers have been found to employ multiple information sources to maximise the accuracy of their predictions, but questions remain about how different information sources are weighted and integrated to guide anticipation. In this paper, we outline how predictive processing approaches, and active inference in particular, provide a unifying account of perception and action that explains many of the prominent findings in the sports anticipation literature. Active inference proposes that perception and action are underpinned by the organism's need to remain within certain stable states. To this end, decision making approximates Bayesian inference and actions are used to minimise future prediction errors during brain-body-environment interactions. Using a series of Bayesian neurocomputational models based on a partially observable Markov process, we demonstrate that key findings from the literature can be recreated from the first principles of active inference. In doing so, we formulate a number of novel and empirically falsifiable hypotheses about human anticipation capabilities that could guide future investigations in the field.

An investigation of feed-forward and feedback eye movement training in immersive virtual reality.

The control of eye gaze is critical to the execution of many skills. The observation that task experts in many domains exhibit more efficient control of eye gaze than novices has led to the development of gaze training interventions that teach these behaviours. We aimed to extend this literature by i) examining the relative benefits of feed-forward (observing an expert's eye movements) versus feed-back (observing your own eye movements) training, and ii) automating this training within virtual reality. Serving personnel from the British Army and Royal Navy were randomised to either feed-forward or feed-back training within a virtual reality simulation of a room search and clearance task. Eye movement metrics - including visual search, saccade direction, and entropy - were recorded to quantify the efficiency of visual search behaviours. Feed-forward and feed-back eye movement training produced distinct learning benefits, but both accelerated the development of efficient gaze behaviours. However, we found no evidence that these more efficient search behaviours transferred to better decision making in the room clearance task. Our results suggest integrating eye movement training principles within virtual reality training simulations may be effective, but further work is needed to understand the learning mechanisms.