Parents' Participation in Managing Their Children's Postoperative Pain at Home: An Integrative Literature Review.

OBJECTIVES: This integrative review aimed to synthesize and critically evaluate the methodological quality of the evidence on parent's participation in managing their children's postoperative pain at home. DESIGN: Integrative review. DATA SOURCES: To locate relevant articles, two reviewers independently searched four electronic databases systematically using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. REVIEW/ANALYSIS METHODS: The methodological quality of 23 eligible studies was critically appraised using published evaluation criteria. A qualitative content analysis was then conducted to synthesize findings of the studies to identify thematic trends and factors on the nature of parents' participation and ability to effectively manage their children's pain at home. RESULTS: Methodological quality of most of the 15 surveys was adequate, whereas shortcomings were identified in 6 of the 7 clinical trials and the 1 qualitative study that were included in this review. The three themes identified pertained to parent use of informational sources, postoperative pain medications, and nonpharmacologic pain treatment approaches. Results indicate parents lack the information they need to effectively make use of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic pain treatment approaches. CONCLUSIONS: There is need to improve communication between parents and health professionals before and after the child's surgery and to provide parents with specific verbal and written instructions and strategies on how to assess and manage their children's pain.

The relationship of prenatal maternal depression or anxiety to maternal caregiving behavior and infant behavior self-regulation during infant heel lance: an ethological time-based study of behavior.

BACKGROUND: Sensitive and responsive maternal caregiving behavior strengthens infant self-regulatory capacities (HL), but this regulatory role may be diminished in some mothers with second-trimester prenatal exposure to depression and/ or anxiety (MDA). This study examined maternal and infant behavior during infant heel lance (HL) when mothers had or did not have MDA. Ethological methods and micro-analytic approaches capable of distinguishing and comparing time-based patterning in maternal and infant behavior were used to clarify biological mechanisms, such as MDA, that may underlie observed behavior. Aims were to examine group differences in caregiving behavior between mothers with and without MDA 5 min Pre-HL and 5 min Post-H, and relationships between MDA, maternal caregiving behavior and infant pain behavior self-regulation, concurrently. METHODS: At second trimester, mothers were assessed for symptoms of mild-severe depression or anxiety. Mothers whose scores exceeded predetermined cut-off scores on one or more of the mental health measures were allocated to the MDA-exposure group, those below to the non-MDA-exposure group. Reliable observers, blinded to MDA status and study phases, coded video records of the caregiving behavior of each study mother for the full duration of the 5 min Pre-HL and 5 min Post-HL study phases. Group differences and associations between mean measures of maternal mental health scores, time-based measures of maternal behavior, and time-based measures of infant pain behavior regulation (previously coded) were concurrently analyzed using comparative and correlational statistics. RESULTS: MDA-exposed mothers spent significantly more time not embracing, engaging or responding to infant cues than maternal controls Pre-HL and Post-HL. MDA was associated with atypical maternal caregiving behavior, which in turn was related to atypical infant pain behavior self-regulation during and after the HL. CONCLUSION: Our findings have implication for practice. We recommend inclusion of mothers with MDA and their infants in interventions that strengthen the early mother-infant interaction and mother's regulatory caregiving role. MDA and maternal caregiving behavior must be considered in future infant pain studies to examine if they confound effectiveness of mother driven caregiving interventions for neonatal pain. We highlight the importance of examining maternal mental health throughout the perinatal and postnatal trajectory, and particularly the newborn period.

Early educational and behavioral RCT interventions to reduce maternal symptoms of psychological trauma following preterm birth: a systematic review.

Early behavioral and educational interventions have been developed to reduce maternal symptoms of psychological trauma (depression, anxiety, parenting stress, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder) following preterm birth (PTB). Aims of this systematic review were to critically assess study methodology and provide a synthesis of existing randomized control trial (RCT) interventions and to estimate effects of the interventions in reducing the maternal symptoms across studies. Four electronic databases were systematically searched to locate relevant RCTs using preestablished eligibility criteria. Data from 8 qualifying RCTs were synthesized. Two reviewers independently assessed study methodology using appraisal checklists. Considerable heterogeneity precluded calculation of pooled estimates. There is evidence that mothers of very preterm infants of low-birth-weight experience major depression for up to 12 months following PTB. Sound interventions implemented during and following infant hospitalization and grounded in coping and self-regulation had a small to moderate effect in reducing maternal depression and anxiety and parenting stress for up to 2 months and 12 months respectively. Clinicians can use existing evidence to help guide best practices. Future high-quality RCTs and meta-analysis require that researchers improve study methodology and include analysis of data on maternal hormonal stress and history of psychological symptoms including during the pregnancy.

Brief report: Maternal kangaroo care for neonatal pain relief: a systematic narrative review.

OBJECTIVE: To appraise critically and to synthesize existing Maternal Kangaroo Care (MKC) intervention studies for neonatal procedural pain. METHODS: Four electronic databases were systematically searched and eligible studies selected by two independent reviewers. Of 93 abstracts, 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings were extracted and methodology assessed based on best-synthesis methodology. RESULTS: There is evidence that MKC can significantly reduce pain from a single pain procedure in full-term infants and stable preterm infants (>26 weeks GA). All 12 MKC studies reported significant reduction in pain behavior but measures of heart rate varied. However, current approaches to data analysis cannot tell us of the magnitude of treatment effects. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies need to clearly define their intervention, provide a guiding framework, explain their study methods and analyses and report effect sizes. This will help strengthen validity of the intervention and support recommendations for clinical application.

Caregiving behavior and interactions of prenatally depressed mothers (antidepressant-treated and non-antidepressant-treated) during newborn acute pain.

This exploratory study aimed to examine time-based measures of the behaviors and interactions of prenatally depressed serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRI)-medicated mothers to their infant's pain (n = 10) by comparing them with similar measures obtained from prenatally depressed nonmedicated mothers and their infants (n = 10), and nondepressed mothers and their infants (n = 10). During the second trimester of their pregnancy, the 30 study mothers were assessed for depression and anxiety, with no further measures of maternal mood taken. Maternal and infant interactions were continuously videorecorded while the infant underwent a scheduled heel lance for routine blood screening that occurred when study infants were between the ages of 24 and 60 hr. Maternal behavior and infant cry, for all 30 cases, were coded second-by-second for the full duration of each infant's heel lance using a reliable coding system and analyzed using odds ratio and regression analyses. Infants exposed to prenatal SRIs and depressed maternal mood were more likely to have lower Apgar scores and to exhibit weak and absent cry. Even when duration of the heel lance was controlled for, women with depression during the second trimester were more likely to exhibit depressed behavior at 2 days' postpartum despite sustained SRI antidepressant treatment. Both groups of prenatally depressed mothers were more likely to exhibit diminished response to their infants' pain cue although nonmedicated mothers' expressions of depressed behavior were more similar to healthy controls. Comprehensive understanding is essential to optimize the clinical care of mothers and their infants in this complex setting. This study contributes preliminary new findings that warrant prospective and longitudinal studies to clarify further the impacts of prenatal SRI and maternal mental mood (e.g., chronic depression and anxiety) effects on the mother-infant interaction and infant pain and stress reactivity.

Implementação de intervenção de tradução e intercâmbio do conhecimento para manejo da dor do neonato / Implementación de intervención de traducción e intercambio de conocimiento para manejo del dolor del neonato / Implementation of a knowledge translation and exchange intervention for pain management in neonates

Resumo Objetivo Descrever o processo de implementação de uma intervenção multifacetada de tradução e intercâmbio do conhecimento para melhorar as práticas de manejo da dor, e avaliar a adoção desta intervenção pelos profissionais de saúde durante procedimentos dolorosos em neonatos. Métodos Estudo quase-experimental tipo antes e depois, realizado em uma unidade neonatal. A intervenção Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality , norteada pela estrutura conceitual The Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services , foi implementada em duas etapas (preparação e implementação), e a sua adoção foi mensurada por indicadores clínicos relacionados ao manejo da dor, apresentados por meio de estatística descritiva. Resultados Após discussão sobre práticas existentes na unidade que necessitavam de mudança; síntese das evidências científicas atuais; e dados do contexto local; os membros do Conselho de Pesquisa e Prática da unidade elaboraram e implementaram metas coerentes e factíveis para mudança da prática no manejo da dor; selecionaram estratégias de tradução e intercâmbio do conhecimento; determinaram o público-alvo e os indicadores e implementaram as intervenções. Houve uma redução em 32,8% no número de procedimentos dolorosos realizados, e aumento entre 26,6 e 50,7% na utilização das escalas de avaliação da dor e de 25,1% na administração da glicose oral. Conclusão A intervenção multifacetada Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality é complexa, e possui processos que demandam conhecimento e habilidades, comprometimento dos diversos atores envolvidos, disponibilidade de tempo e investimento financeiro. Os indicadores analisados mostraram que a intervenção resultou em mudanças positivas na prática clínica no manejo da dor do neonato.

Resumen Objetivo Describir el proceso de implementación de una intervención multifacética de traducción e intercambio de conocimiento para mejorar las prácticas de manejo del dolor y evaluar la adopción de esta intervención por profesionales de la salud durante procedimientos dolorosos en neonatos. Métodos Estudio cuasi experimental tipo antes y después, realizado en una unidad neonatal. Se implementó la intervención Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality , norteada por la estructura conceptual The Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services , en dos etapas (preparación e implementación), y su adopción fue medida mediante indicadores clínicos relacionados con el manejo del dolor, presentados por medio de estadística descriptiva. Resultados Después de discutir sobre prácticas existentes en la unidad que necesitaba cambios y realizar una síntesis de las evidencias científicas actuales y de datos del contexto local, los miembros del Consejo de Investigación y Práctica de la unidad elaboraron e implementaron metas coherentes y factibles para cambiar la práctica del manejo de dolor, seleccionaron estrategias de traducción e intercambio de conocimiento, determinaron el público destinatario y los indicadores e implementaron las intervenciones. Hubo una reducción del 32,8 % del número de procedimientos dolorosos realizados y un aumento de 26,6 a 50,7 % de utilización de las escalas de evaluación del dolor y del 25,1 % de la administración de glucosa oral. Conclusión La intervención multifacética Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality es compleja y contiene procesos que requieren conocimiento y habilidades, compromiso de los diferentes actores involucrados, disponibilidad de tiempo e inversión financiera. Los indicadores analizados mostraron que la intervención produjo cambios positivos en la práctica clínica del manejo del dolor del neonato.

Abstract Objective To describe the implementation process of a multifaceted knowledge translation and exchange intervention to improve pain management practices, and to evaluate the adoption of this intervention by health professionals during painful procedures in neonates. Methods A quasi-experimental before-and-after study developed in a neonatal unit. The Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality intervention guided by the conceptual framework The Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services was implemented in two stages (preparation and implementation). Its adoption was measured by clinical indicators related to pain management presented through descriptive statistics. Results After discussion on existing practices in the unit that needed to be changed, synthesis of current scientific evidence and local context data, members of the unit's Research and Practice Council developed and implemented coherent and achievable goals for the change of practice in pain management, selected knowledge translation and exchange strategies, determined the target audience and indicators, and implemented the interventions. There was a 32.8% reduction in the number of painful procedures performed, an increase of 26.6-50.7% in the use of pain assessment scales and of 25.1% in the administration of oral glucose. Conclusion The multifaceted Evidence-Based Practice for Improving Quality intervention is complex, and has processes that demand knowledge and skills, commitment from the various actors involved, availability of time and financial investment. The analyzed indicators showed that the intervention resulted in positive changes in clinical practice in the management of pain in neonates.

The experiences of undergraduate nursing students and self-reflective accounts of first clinical rotation in pediatric oncology.

The clinical practicum is one of the most anticipated components of the nursing program for nursing students. However, the practicum can be anxiety producing for students, especially when it is their first placement in an emotional demanding setting like pediatric oncology unit. Taking care of children with cancer and who are facing the death trajectory is complex and demanding not only for students but also for the experienced nurse. In this qualitative research, the purpose was to explore senior student perceptions and self-reflective accounts of what it was like to care for children with cancer and their family throughout the course of their first practicum on a pediatric oncology unit that also provided children palliative care as needed. Data from the self-reflective journals and interviews were analyzed together using conventional content analysis. The three resultant categories that emerged: state of shock and getting lost, walking in to a mind shaking world and finding the way provided in-depth novel insight on the perceptions of senior undergraduate nursing students as they journey through their first time practicum on a pediatric oncology unit. The findings also confirmed the importance and benefit of reflective journaling to student integrated learning and adjustment in nursing practice.

Comprehensive description of newborn distress behavior in response to acute pain (newborn male circumcision).

One of the most difficult challenges still facing researchers and clinicians is assessing pain in the newborn. Behaviors provide one of the most promising avenues for deepening our fundamental understanding of complex phenomenon like newborn pain, and are key to developing descriptive-level knowledge to further newborn pain assessment efforts. In this ethologically based research, we report on the duration and frequency of neonatal distress behavior to seven distinct noxious and non-noxious but distress-provoking events including baseline (diaper change, post-diaper change, application of arm and leg restraints, post-application of arm and leg restraints, circumcision, post-circumcision) associated with newborn surgical pain. Approximately 67 min of videotaped data, involving four neonates who had undergone newborn male circumcision, were coded at 1-s intervals (4010 s in total). A reliably established coding scheme was used to code behaviors as they were observed on videotape for the duration of the seven designated events. This led to the identification of (1) 40 distress behaviors as they occurred along the continuum of distress, (2) eight distress behaviors specific to surgery, (3) 11 classes of behaviors occurring within the five sub-phases of circumcision, and (4) a description of 25 distinct post-distress behaviors. Findings support the ability to distinguish distress behaviors specific to pain and the ability to detect prolonged distress as well as individual differences in distress-related pain expression. Findings also justify ongoing use of ethological approaches to further newborn pain assessment and to investigate poorly understood topics such as infant self-regulation within the context of pain (pain recovery).

Pain progression, intensity and outcomes following tonsillectomy.

The objective of this study was to assess outcomes of pediatric day surgery tonsillectomy. A total of 129 children, aged 5-16 years, and their parents were recruited from three urban hospitals which provided pediatric day surgery. Children reported pain on a visual analogue scale (VAS) in day surgery and then daily at home for 7 days. Parents reported outcomes of surgery, including fluid intake, nausea, vomiting and sleep disturbances. They also recorded analgesic administration. Three main results related to extent and duration of pain, quality of management of pain, and effect of pain on utilization of health services. Tonsillectomy caused considerable pain which lasted more than 7 days. Pain followed a trajectory of intense or moderately intense pain for the first 3 days followed by a gradual decline over the next 4 days. In general, post-tonsillectomy pain was poorly managed by health professionals and parents. An unexpected observation was that children who had a bupivacaine infiltration of the tonsil fossa during surgery had significantly more pain in the evening of surgery than children who did not have an infiltration. The increase in postoperative pain experienced by those who had the infiltration was attributed to quality of pain management. Children with persistent pain (those who did not follow the typical trajectory) were likely to be taken to a medical practitioner. One-third of the sample made unscheduled visits to practitioners with most occurring from Day 4 to Day 7 of the follow-up.

Foundations of knowledge about neonatal pain.

This review appraises trends in the neonatal pain research literature. We searched the literature produced from 1941 to 2001. Information about the model of pain, measures of pain, design, and sample characteristics is included for each citation. Gaps in knowledge are attributed to specific conceptual and methodological problems, including the lack of basic knowledge about pain behavior, over-reliance on an invasive short-term pain model, pain measurement issues, and lack of knowledge about confounders. Ethological research methods could be used to expand basic knowledge about newborn pain.

The notion of evidence in evidence-based practice by the Nursing Philosophy Working Group.

Questions concerning the nature of evidence in evidence-based practice have kindled debate within nursing and other health care disciplines. Such questions include the ends for which evidence is sought, the form(s) of evidence, and the values underlying evidence-based practice. In this article, some of the issues, contradictions, and tensions implicit in these questions are highlighted. It is imperative that the nursing profession continue to explore the philosophic perspectives that underscore evidence-based practice and their implications for decision making in nursing practice.

Self-regulation (recovery) from pain: association between time-based measures of infant pain behavior and prenatal exposure to maternal depression and anxiety.

OBJECTIVES: Capacities for self-regulation that influence infant adaptation to noxious stimulation require investigation of changes in behavior over time. Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and anxiety (MDA) has been linked to altered infant pain reactivity; however, findings are inconclusive about MDA dynamic impacts on recovery. This study quantified the temporal profile of behavioral response and recovery to routine heel lance (HL) of infants with and without prenatal-MDA exposure. Aims were to examine whether MDA were associated with alterations in time-based measures of infant behavior and sequential patterning in pain expression. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Videotaped facial, body, and cry behaviors of 21 full-term newborns were coded second-by-second for the duration of HL (baseline, HL, Post-HL) using validated behavioral coding systems. Mean heart rate and proportion of time infants spent exhibiting behavioral measures were compared between infant groups and over subphases of HL. Simple regressions, latency, and Yule-Q measures of effect size examined which behaviors were predicted by prenatal-MDA and magnitude of sequential association between first and subsequent behavior. RESULTS: During HL, all infants reacted immediately and substantially on heart rate, facial, body, and cry measures. Facial reactivity was followed within 2 seconds by body and cry behavior. There were no group differences in magnitude of initial behavioral reactions, but during Post-HL, MDA-exposed infants spent more time crying in a weak/exhausted manner and displayed strained and erratic limb movement and immobility. CONCLUSIONS: Temporal measures can further help in understanding of infant complex behavioral responses to pain. Delayed recovery in MDA-exposed infants suggested diminished capacities for self-regulation of noxious distress.

Maternal factors regulating preterm infants' responses to pain and stress while in maternal kangaroo care.

The relationship between maternal factors and the response of preterm infants to pain and stress experienced during heel puncture while in maternal kangaroo care was investigated. This descriptive study included 42 mothers and their preterm infants cared for in a neonatal unit. Data were collected in the baseline, procedure, and recovery phases. We measured the neonates' facial actions, sleep and wake states, crying, salivary cortisol levels, and heart rate, in addition to the mothers' behavior, salivary cortisol levels, and mental condition. The influence of the maternal explanatory variables on the neonatal response variables were verified through bivariate analysis, ANOVA, and multiple regression. The mothers' behavior and depression and/or anxiety did not affect the neonates' responses to pain and stress, though the mothers' levels of salivary cortisol before the procedure explained the variance in the neonates' levels of salivary cortisol after the procedure (p=0.036). Additionally, the mothers' baseline levels of salivary cortisol along with the neonates' age explained the variance in the neonates' heart rate (p=0.001). The ability of mothers to regulate their own stress contributed to the infants' responses to pain and stress.

Measuring cortisol and DHEA in fingernails: a pilot study.

PURPOSE: Abnormalities in both cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) have been reported in psychiatric disorders. Analysis of saliva, urine and blood cortisol and DHEA levels provides an index of hormone levels over a short time period. Unlike such conventional measures, fingernails incorporate endogenous hormones that passively diffuse to the nail matrix from capillaries during keratinization. This study piloted the measurement of cortisol and DHEA levels in fingernails as a potential measure of their accumulated secretion of steroid hormones over a prolonged time period. METHOD: Thirty-three university students (18-24 years) provided fingernail samples on two occasions over a school semester. The visits were scheduled so nail cortisol and DHEA levels were collected from periods when students might be under different levels of stress. RESULTS: DURING THE PUTATIVELY STRESSFUL PERIOD, THE NAIL SAMPLES SHOWED A SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN THE CORTISOL: DHEA ratio (P = 0.0002) due to a significant decrease in the DHEA levels (P = 0.004) and a numerical but not statistically significant increase in the cortisol levels (P = 0.256). DISCUSSION: This pilot study showed that nails can be used to measure cortisol and DHEA, a measure which may reflect environmental stress. More work is required to further validate this technique which may prove useful in studies of both healthy individuals and patient groups.

The effects of skin-to-skin contact during acute pain in preterm newborns.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Several promising non-pharmacological interventions have been developed to reduce acute pain in preterm infants including skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her infant. However, variability in physiological outcomes of existing studies on skin-to-skin makes it difficult to determine treatment effects of this naturalistic approach for the preterm infant. The aim of this study was to test the efficacy of mother and infant skin-to-skin contact during heel prick in premature infants. METHOD: Fifty nine stable preterm infants (born at least 30 weeks gestational age) who were undergoing routine heel lance were randomly assigned to either 15 min of skin-to-skin contact before, during and following heel prick (n=31, treatment group), or to regular care (n=28, control group). Throughout the heel lance procedure, all infants were assessed for change in facial action (NFCS), behavioral state, crying, and heart rate. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were noted between the treatment and control groups during the puncture, heel squeeze and the post phases of heel prick. Infants who received skin-to-skin contact were more likely to show lower NFCS scores throughout the procedure. Both groups of infants cried and showed increased heart rate during puncture and heel squeeze although changes in these measures were less for the treated infants. CONCLUSIONS: Skin-to-skin contact promoted reduction in behavioral measures and less physiological increase during procedure. It is recommended that skin-to-skin contact be used as a non-pharmacologic intervention to relieve acute pain in stable premature infants born 30 weeks gestational age or older.

Measuring the quality of pediatric day surgery care.

This brief report describes the process of developing a valid and reliable questionnaire for quality measurement of pediatric day surgery care from the families' perspective. Questionnaire items were generated through a literature search and interviews with clinicians and parents. A computer-assisted telephone interview was used to administer the questionnaire to 448 parents within 72 hours of patient discharge. Tests of reliability and validity were administered, and questionnaire items were improved or omitted based on the results. The investigators plan to readminister the improved questionnaire to confirm its validity and reliability.

Maternal factors regulating preterm infants' responses to pain and stress while in maternal kangaroo care / Fatores maternos influenciam a resposta à dor e ao estresse do neonato em posição canguru / Los factores maternos regula la respuesta al dolor y al estrés del recién nacido en posición canguro

The relationship between maternal factors and the response of preterm infants to pain and stress experienced during heel puncture while in maternal kangaroo care was investigated. This descriptive study included 42 mothers and their preterm infants cared for in a neonatal unit. Data were collected in the baseline, procedure, and recovery phases. We measured the neonates' facial actions, sleep and wake states, crying, salivary cortisol levels, and heart rate, in addition to the mothers' behavior, salivary cortisol levels, and mental condition. The influence of the maternal explanatory variables on the neonatal response variables were verified through bivariate analysis, ANOVA, and multiple regression. The mothers' behavior and depression and/or anxiety did not affect the neonates' responses to pain and stress, though the mothers' levels of salivary cortisol before the procedure explained the variance in the neonates' levels of salivary cortisol after the procedure (p=0.036). Additionally, the mothers' baseline levels of salivary cortisol along with the neonates' age explained the variance in the neonates' heart rate (p=0.001). The ability of mothers to regulate their own stress contributed to the infants' responses to pain and stress.

Investigou-se associação entre fatores maternos e resposta de prematuros submetidos à punção de calcâneo em posição canguru. Trata-se de estudo descritivo envolvendo 42 mães e prematuros de uma unidade neonatal. A coleta ocorreu nos períodos basal, procedimento e recuperação. Mensuraram-se a mímica facial, sono e vigília, choro, cortisol salivar e frequência cardíaca neonatais, além de se mensurar o comportamento, cortisol salivar e estado mental maternos. Analisou-se a influência das variáveis explanatórias maternas nas variáveis de resposta neonatais por análise bivariada, análise de variância e regressão múltipla. A depressão e/ou ansiedade e comportamento materno não influenciaram a resposta do prematuro à dor e estresse. O cortisol salivar pré-punção materno explicou a variância do cortisol salivar pós-punção neonatal (p=0,036); e o cortisol salivar noturno materno, juntamente com a idade pós-natal neonatal, explicaram a variância da frequência cardíaca neonatal (p=0,001). A capacidade das mães em regular seu próprio estresse contribuiu para resposta de dor e estresse do prematuro.

Asociación entre los factores maternos y la respuesta de los prematuros sometidos a punción del calcáneo en posición canguro. Estudio descriptivo envolviendo 42 madres y prematuros de una unidad neonatal. La colecta se dio en el período basal, procedimiento y recuperación. Se midieron la mímica facial, sueño y vigilia, llanto, cortisol salival y frecuencia cardíaca neonatal; y el comportamiento, cortisol salival y estado mental materno. Se analizó la influencia de las variables maternas en las variables neonatales por análisis bi-variada, análisis de variancia y regresión múltiple. La depresión, ansiedad y comportamiento materno no influenciaron la respuesta del prematuro al dolor. El cortisol pre-punción materna explico la variancia del cortisol post-punción neonatal (p=0,036); el cortisol nocturno materno, juntamente con la edad post nacimiento neonatal, explicaron la variancia de la frecuencia cardíaca neonatal (p=0,001). La capacidad de las madres en regular su proprio estrés contribuyó para la respuesta del dolor del prematuro.

Ethological methods to develop nursing knowledge.

Researchers from various fields use ethological methods to systematically observe, describe, and measure animal and human nonverbal behavior. The purpose of this article is to argue that their application in nursing will benefit development of descriptive-level knowledge about complex behavioral phenomena. To advance the argument for applying these methods in nursing, we examine the compatibility of the philosophical assumptions underlying ethology with nursing, assess if ethology can help nursing achieve some of its aims, and determine the benefits of using ethology when observation of a phenomenon is required. Neonatal pain is used to illustrate how ethology can be used to develop descriptive-level nursing knowledge and midrange theory.