Total Synthesis of Limaol.

A nonthermodynamic array of four skipped methylene substituents on the hydrophobic tail renders limaol, a C40-polyketide of marine origin, unique in structural terms. This conspicuous segment was assembled by a two-directional approach and finally coupled to the polyether domain by an allyl/alkenyl Stille reaction under neutral conditions. The core region itself was prepared via a 3,3'-dibromo-BINOL-catalyzed asymmetric propargylation, a gold-catalyzed spirocyclization, and introduction of the southern sector via substrate-controlled allylation as the key steps.

Collective Total Synthesis of Casbane Diterpenes: One Strategy, Multiple Targets.

Of the more than 100 casbane diterpenes known to date, only the eponymous parent hydrocarbon casbene itself has ever been targeted by chemical synthesis. Outlined herein is a conceptually new approach that brings not a single but a variety of casbane derivatives into reach, especially the more highly oxygenated and arguably more relevant members of this family. The key design elements are a catalyst-controlled intramolecular cyclopropanation with or without subsequent equilibration, chain extension of the resulting stereoisomeric cyclopropane building blocks by chemoselective hydroboration/cross-coupling, and the efficient closure of the strained macrobicyclic framework by ring-closing alkyne metathesis. A hydroxy-directed catalytic trans-hydrostannation allows for late-stage diversity. These virtues are manifested in the concise total syntheses of depressin, yuexiandajisu A, and ent-pekinenin C. The last compound turned out to be identical to euphorhylonal A, the structure of which had clearly been misassigned.

The Formosalides: Structure Determination by Total Synthesis.

Total synthesis allowed the constitution of the cytotoxic marine macrolides of the formosalide family to be confirmed and their previously unknown stereostructure to be assigned with confidence. The underlying blueprint was inherently modular to ensure that each conceivable isomer could be reached. This flexibility derived from the use of strictly catalyst controlled transformations to set the stereocenters, except for the anomeric position, which is under thermodynamic control; as an extra safety measure, all stereogenic centers were set prior to ring closure to preclude any interference of the conformation adopted by the macrolactone rings of the different diastereomers. Late-stage macrocyclization by ring-closing alkyne metathesis was followed by a platinum-catalyzed transannular 6-exo-dig hydroalkoxylation/ketalization to craft the polycyclic frame. The side chain featuring a very labile unsaturation pattern was finally attached to the core by Stille coupling.

Total Synthesis of Disciformycin†A and B: Unusually Exigent Targets of Biological Significance.

The first total synthesis of the potent antibiotic disciformycin B (2) is described, which is exceptionally isomerization-prone and transforms into disciformycin A (1) even under notably mild conditions. To outweigh this bias, the approach to 2 hinged on the use of a silyl residue at C4 to lock the critical double bond in place and hence insure the integrity of the synthetic intermediates en route to 2. This tactic was instrumental for the preparation of the building blocks and formation of the macrocyclic ring via ring closing alkyne metathesis (RCAM). To make the end game successful, however, it proved necessary to cleave the C-silyl protecting group off; it was at this stage that the exceptional sensitivity of the target became fully apparent.

Total Synthesis of Belizentrin Methyl Ester: Report on a Likely Conquest.

The assigned structure of the dinoflagellate-derived toxin belizentrin was prepared by total synthesis in form of the corresponding methyl ester for stability reasons. The successful route features an unusual solution for the preparation of a recalcitrant ylide on a C-glycosidic segment; moreover, it involves an asymmetric hetero-Diels-Alder reaction en route to the tertiary hemiacetal substructure, a Negishi cross-coupling of two elaborate building blocks, and a macrocyclization based on an intramolecular aminolysis of a spirolactone. A modified Kocienski olefination ultimately allowed the polyol side chain to be attached to the macrocycle although this transformation faced the exceptional base sensitivity of this polyunsaturated target compound.

Polyunsaturated C-Glycosidic 4-Hydroxy-2-pyrone Derivatives: Total Synthesis Shows that Putative Orevactaene Is Likely Identical with Epipyrone†A.

Orevactaene and epipyrone A were previously thought to comprise the same polyunsaturated tail but notably different C-glycosylated 4-hydroxy-2-pyrone head groups. Total synthesis now shows that the signature bicyclic framework assigned to orevactaene is a chimera; the compound is almost certainly identical with epipyrone A, whose previously unknown stereochemistry has also been established during this study. Key to success was the ready formation of the bicyclic core of putative orevactaene by a sequence of two alkyne cycloisomerization reactions using tungsten and gold catalysis. Equally important was the flexibility in the assembly process gained by the use of heterobimetallic polyunsaturated modules whose termini could be selectively and consecutively addressed in a practical one-pot cross-coupling sequence.

A Two-Component Alkyne Metathesis Catalyst System with an Improved Substrate Scope and Functional Group Tolerance: Development and Applications to Natural Product Synthesis.

Although molybdenum alkylidyne complexes such as 1 endowed with triarylsilanolate ligands are excellent catalysts for alkyne metathesis, they can encounter limitations when (multiple) protic sites are present in a given substrate and/or when forcing conditions are necessary. In such cases, a catalyst formed in situ upon mixing of the trisamidomolybenum alkylidyne complex 3 and the readily available trisilanol derivatives 8 or 11 shows significantly better performance. This two-component system worked well for a series of model compounds comprising primary, secondary or phenolic -OH groups, as well as for a set of challenging (bis)propargylic substrates. Its remarkable efficiency is also evident from applications to the total syntheses of manshurolide, a highly strained sesquiterpene lactone with kinase inhibitory activity, and the structurally demanding immunosuppressive cyclodiyne ivorenolide A; in either case, the standard catalyst 1 largely failed to effect the critical macrocyclization, whereas the two-component system was fully operative. A study directed toward the quinolizidine alkaloid lythrancepine I features yet another instructive example, in that a triyne substrate was metathesized with the help of 3/11 such that two of the triple bonds participated in ring closure, while the third one passed uncompromised. As a spin-off of this project, a much improved ruthenium catalyst for the redox isomerization of propargyl alcohols to the corresponding enones was developed.

Total Synthesis, Stereochemical Revision, and Biological Reassessment of Mandelalide†A: Chemical Mimicry of Intrafamily Relationships.

Mandelalide A and three congeners had recently been isolated as the supposedly highly cytotoxic principles of an ascidian collected off the South African coastline. Since these compounds are hardly available from the natural source, a concise synthesis route was developed, targeting structure 1 as the purported representation of mandelalide A. The sequence involves an iridium-catalyzed two-directional Krische allylation and a cobalt-catalyzed carbonylative epoxide opening as entry points for the preparation of the major building blocks. The final stages feature the first implementation of terminal acetylene metathesis into natural product total synthesis, which is remarkable in that this class of substrates had been beyond the reach of alkyne metathesis for decades. Synthetic 1, however, proved not to be identical with the natural product. In an attempt to clarify this issue, NMR spectra were simulated for 20 conceivable diastereomers by using DFT followed by DP4 analysis; however, this did not provide a reliable assignment either. The puzzle was ultimately solved by the preparation of three diastereomers, of which compound 6 proved identical with mandelalide A in all analytical and spectroscopic regards. As the entire "northern sector" about the tetrahydrofuran ring in 6 shows the opposite configuration of what had originally been assigned, it is highly likely that the stereostructures of the sister compounds mandelalides B-D must be corrected analogously; we propose that these natural products are accurately represented by structures 68-70. In an attempt to prove this reassignment, an entry into mandelalides C and D was sought by subjecting an advanced intermediate of the synthesis of 6 to a largely unprecedented intramolecular Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction, which furnished the γ-lactone derivative 74 as a mixture of diastereomers. Whereas (24R)-74 was amenable to a hydroxyl-directed dihydroxylation by using OsO4 /TMEDA as the reagent, the sister compound (24S)-74 did not follow a directed path but simply obeyed Kishi's rule; only this unexpected escape precluded the preparation of mandelalides C and D by this route. A combined spectroscopic and computational (DFT) study showed that the reasons for this strikingly different behavior of the two diastereomers of 74 are rooted in their conformational peculiarities. This aspect apart, our results show that the OsO4 /TMEDA complex reacts preferentially with electron deficient double bonds even if other alkenes are present that are more electron rich and less encumbered. Finally, in a brief biological survey authentic mandelalide A (6) was found to exhibit appreciable cytotoxicity only against one out of three tested human cancer cell lines and all synthetic congeners were hardly active. No significant fungicidal properties were observed.

Total synthesis of berkelic acid.

A productive total synthesis of both enantiomers of berkelic acid (1) is outlined that takes the structure revision of this bioactive fungal metabolite previously proposed by our group into account. The successful route relies on a fully optimized triple-deprotection/1,4-addition/spiroacetalization cascade reaction sequence, which delivers the tetracyclic core 32 of the target as a single isomer in excellent yield. The required cyclization precursor 31 is assembled from the polysubstituted benzaldehyde derivative 20 and methyl ketone 25 by an aldol condensation, in which the acetyl residue in 20 transforms from a passive protecting group into an active participant. Access to fragment 25 takes advantage of the Collum-Godenschwager variant of the ester enolate Claisen rearrangement, which clearly surpasses the classical Ireland-Claisen procedure in terms of diastereoselectivity. Although it is possible to elaborate 32 into the target without any additional manipulations of protecting groups, a short detour consisting in the conversion of the phenolic -OH into the corresponding TBS-ether is beneficial. It tempers the sensitivity of the compound toward oxidation and hence improves the efficiency and reliability of the final stages. Orthogonal ester groups for the benzoate and the aliphatic carboxylate terminus of the side chain secure an efficient liberation of free berkelic acid in the final step of the route.

Total synthesis, molecular editing and evaluation of a tripyrrolic natural product: the case of "butylcycloheptylprodigiosin".

Conflicting reports are found in the literature on whether the ortho-pyrrolophane derivative 6, which has been named "butylcycloheptylprodigiosin" even though it is a cyclononane derivative, is a natural product or merely a mis-assigned structure. This dispute has now been resolved by an unambiguous total synthesis of this complex alkaloid which confirms the initial structure assignment. The chosen approach is largely catalysis-based, featuring the first application of a "Narasaka-Heck" reaction in natural product chemistry. This palladium-catalyzed transformation allows the unsaturated oxime ester 26 to be converted into the bicyclic dihydropyrrole 27. Other notable reactions of the reported approach to 6 are a regioselective Tsuji-Trost reaction of the doubly allylic acetate 21 with methyl acetoacetate, a base-induced aromatization of 27 to the corresponding pyrrole 28, a chemoselective oxidation of the benzylic methyl group in 33 with cerium ammonium nitrate in a biphasic reaction medium that does not affect the labile pyrrole nucleus, and a Suzuki cross-coupling for the completion of the heterocyclic domain. Diversification in the latter step leads to a set of analogues that differ from the natural product in the terminal (hetero)arene ring. This structural modification results in complete loss of the very pronounced ability of the parent compound 6 to induce oxidative cleavage in double stranded DNA in the presence of Cu(II). Several cyclononane-, cyclononene- and cyclononadiene derivatives prepared en route to 6 have been characterized by crystal structure analysis, allowing the conformational behavior of nine-membered carbocycles to be studied.

Total syntheses of the actin-binding macrolides latrunculin A, B, C, M, S and 16-epi-latrunculin B.

The latrunculins are highly selective actin-binding marine natural products and as such play an important role as probe molecules for chemical biology. A short, concise and largely catalysis-based approach to this family of bioactive macrolides is presented. Specifically, the macrocyclic skeletons of the targets were forged by ring-closing alkyne metathesis (RCAM) or enyne-yne metathesis of suitable diyne or enyne-yne precursors, respectively. This transformation was best achieved with the aid of [(tBu)(Me(2)C(6)H(3))N](3)Mo (37) as precatalyst activated in situ with CH(2)Cl(2), as previously described. This catalyst system is strictly chemoselective for the triple bond and does not affect the olefinic sites of the substrates. Moreover, the molybdenum-based catalyst turned out to be broader in scope than the Schrock alkylidyne complex [(tBuO)(3)W[triple chemical bond]CCMe(3)] (38), which afforded cycloalkyne 35 in good yield but failed in closely related cases. The required metathesis precursors were assembled in a highly convergent fashion from three building blocks derived from acetoacetate, cysteine, and (+)-citronellene. The key fragment coupling can either be performed via a titanium aldol reaction or, preferentially, by a sequence involving a Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons olefination followed by a protonation/cyclization/diastereoselective hydration cascade. Iron-catalyzed C--C-bond formations were used to prepare the basic building blocks in an efficient manner. This synthesis blueprint gave access to latrunculin B (2), its naturally occurring 16-epimer 3, as well as the even more potent actin binder latrunculin A (1) in excellent overall yields. Because of the sensitivity of the 1,3-diene motif of the latter, however, the judicious choice of protecting groups and the proper phasing of their cleavage was decisive for the success of the total synthesis. Since latrunculin A and B had previously been converted into latrunculin S, C and M, respectively, formal total syntheses of these congeners have also been achieved. Finally, a previously unknown acid-catalyzed degradation pathway of these bioactive natural products is described. The cysteine-derived ketone 18, the tetrahydropyranyl segment 31 serving as the common synthesis platform for the preparation of all naturally occurring latrunculins, as well as the somewhat strained cycloalkyne 35 formed by the RCAM reaction en route to 2 were characterized by X-ray crystallography.

Total synthesis of woodrosin I--part 1: preparation of the building blocks and evaluation of the glycosylation strategy.

The preparation of three building blocks required for the total synthesis of woodrosin I (1) is outlined, a complex resin glycoside bearing a macrolide ring which spans four of the five sugars of its oligosaccharide backbone. Key steps involve the enantioselective, titanium-catalyzed addition of dipentylzinc to 5-hexenal, the glycosylation of the resulting alcohol 18 with the glucose-derived trichloroacetimidate 7, and further elaboration of the resulting product 19 into disaccharide 22 on treatment with the orthogonally protected glycosyl donor 15. The trichloroacetimidate method is also used for the formation of the second synthon represented by disaccharide 38. A model study shows that the assembly of the pentasaccharidic perimeter of 1 depends critically on the phasing of the glycosylation events between fragments 22, 38 and the rhamnosyl donor 27 due to the severe steric hindrance in the product. A particularly noteworthy finding is the fact that diol 22 can be regioselectively glycosylated at the 3'-OH group in high yield without protection of the neighboring 2'-OH function.

Total synthesis of woodrosin I--part 2: final stages involving RCM and an orthoester rearrangement.

The completion of the first total synthesis of the complex resin glycoside woodrosin I (1) is outlined using the building blocks described in the preceding paper. Key steps involve the TMSOTf-catalyzed coupling of diol 2 with trichloroacetimidate 3 which leads to the selective formation of orthoester 5 rather than to the expected tetrasaccharide. Diene 5, on treatment with catalytic amounts of the Grubbs carbene complex 6 or the phenylindenylidene ruthenium complex 7, undergoes a high yielding ring closing olefin metathesis reaction (RCM) to afford macrolide 8. Exposure of the latter to the rhamnosyl donor 4 in the presence of TMSOTf under "inverse glycosylation" conditions delivers compound 9 by a process involving glycosylation of the sterically hindered 2'-OH group and concomitant rearrangement of the adjacent orthoester into the desired beta-glycoside. This transformation constitutes one of the most advanced applications of the Kochetkov glycosidation method reported to date. Cleavage of the chloroacetate followed by exhaustive hydrogenation completes the total synthesis of the targeted glycolipid 1.

Total syntheses of the phytotoxic lactones herbarumin I and II and a synthesis-based solution of the pinolidoxin puzzle.

A concise approach to a family of potent herbicidal 10-membered lactones is described on the basis of ring-closing metathesis (RCM) as the key step for the formation of the medium-sized ring. This includes the first total syntheses of herbarumin I (1) and II (2) as well as the synthesis of several possible macrolides of the pinolidoxin series. A comparison of their spectral and analytical data with those of the natural product allowed us to establish the stereostructure of pinolidoxin, a potent inhibitor of induced phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activity, as shown in 46. This finding, however, makes clear that a previous study dealing with the relative and absolute stereochemistry of this phytotoxic agent cannot be correct. An important aspect from the preparative point of view is the fact that the stereochemical outcome of the RCM reaction can be controlled by the choice of the catalyst. Thus, use of the ruthenium indenylidene complex 16 always leads to the corresponding (E)-alkenes, whereas the second generation catalyst 17 bearing an N-heterocyclic carbene ligand affords the isomeric (Z)-olefin with good selectivity. This course is deemed to reflect kinetic versus thermodynamic control of the cyclization reaction and therefore has potentially broader ramifications for the synthesis of medium-sized rings in general. A further noteworthy design feature is the fact that D-ribose is used as a convenient starting material for the preparation of both enantiomers of the key building block 14 by means of a "head-to-tail" interconversion strategy.