Loss-of-function variants in SRRM2 cause a neurodevelopmental disorder.

PURPOSE: SRRM2 encodes the SRm300 protein, a splicing factor of the SR-related protein family characterized by its serine- and arginine-enriched domains. It promotes interactions between messenger RNA and the spliceosome catalytic machinery. This gene, predicted to be highly intolerant to loss of function (LoF) and very conserved through evolution, has not been previously reported in constitutive human disease. METHODS: Among the 1000 probands studied with developmental delay and intellectual disability in our database, we found 2 patients with de novo LoF variants in SRRM2. Additional families were identified through GeneMatcher. RESULTS: Here, we report on 22 patients with LoF variants in SRRM2 and provide a description of the phenotype. Molecular analysis identified 12 frameshift variants, 8 nonsense variants, and 2 microdeletions of 66 kb and 270 kb. The patients presented with a mild developmental delay, predominant speech delay, autistic or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder features, overfriendliness, generalized hypotonia, overweight, and dysmorphic facial features. Intellectual disability was variable and mild when present. CONCLUSION: We established SRRM2 as a gene responsible for a rare neurodevelopmental disease.

Functional and prognostic significance of the genomic amplification of frizzled 6 (FZD6) in breast cancer.

Frizzled receptors mediate Wnt ligand signalling, which is crucially involved in regulating tissue development and differentiation, and is often deregulated in cancer. In this study, we found that the gene encoding the Wnt receptor frizzled 6 (FZD6) is frequently amplified in breast cancer, with an increased incidence in the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtype. Ablation of FZD6 expression in mammary cancer cell lines: (1) inhibited motility and invasion; (2) induced a more symmetrical shape of organoid three-dimensional cultures; and (3) inhibited bone and liver metastasis in vivo. Mechanistically, FZD6 signalling is required for the assembly of the fibronectin matrix, interfering with the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. Ectopic delivery of fibronectin in FZD6-depleted, triple-negative MDA-MB-231 cells rearranged the actin cytoskeleton and restored epidermal growth factor-mediated invasion. In patients with localized, lymph node-negative (early) breast cancer, positivity of tumour cells for FZD6 protein identified patients with reduced distant relapse-free survival. Multivariate analysis indicated an independent prognostic significance of FZD6 expression in TNBC tumours, predicting distant, but not local, relapse. We conclude that the FZD6-fibronectin actin axis identified in our study could be exploited for drug development in highly metastatic forms of breast cancer, such as TNBC. © 2016 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Analysis of alternative lengthening of telomere markers in BRCA1 defective cells.

Telomeres are specialized structures responsible for the chromosome end protection. Previous studies have revealed that defective BRCA1 may lead to elevated telomere fusions and accelerated telomere shortening. In addition, BRCA1 associates with promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies in alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALTs) positive cells. We report here elevated recombination rates at telomeres in cells from human BRCA1 mutation carriers and in mouse embryonic stem cells lacking both copies of functional Brca1. An increased recombination rate at telomeres is one of the signs of ALT. To investigate this possibility further we employed the C-circle assay that identifies ALT unequivocally. Our results revealed elevated levels of ALT activity in Brca1 defective mouse cells. Similar results were obtained when the same cells were assayed for the presence of another ALT marker, namely the frequency of PML bodies. These results suggest that BRCA1 may act as a repressor of ALT. © 2016 The Authors Genes, Chromosomes & Cancer Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Disruptive chemicals, senescence and immortality.

Carcinogenesis is thought to be a multistep process, with clonal evolution playing a central role in the process. Clonal evolution involves the repeated 'selection and succession' of rare variant cells that acquire a growth advantage over the remaining cell population through the acquisition of 'driver mutations' enabling a selective advantage in a particular micro-environment. Clonal selection is the driving force behind tumorigenesis and possesses three basic requirements: (i) effective competitive proliferation of the variant clone when compared with its neighboring cells, (ii) acquisition of an indefinite capacity for self-renewal, and (iii) establishment of sufficiently high levels of genetic and epigenetic variability to permit the emergence of rare variants. However, several questions regarding the process of clonal evolution remain. Which cellular processes initiate carcinogenesis in the first place? To what extent are environmental carcinogens responsible for the initiation of clonal evolution? What are the roles of genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogens in carcinogenesis? What are the underlying mechanisms responsible for chemical carcinogen-induced cellular immortality? Here, we explore the possible mechanisms of cellular immortalization, the contribution of immortalization to tumorigenesis and the mechanisms by which chemical carcinogens may contribute to these processes.

The effect of chemotherapeutic agents on telomere length maintenance in breast cancer cell lines.

Mammalian telomeric DNA consists of tandem repeats of the sequence TTAGGG associated with a specialized set of proteins, known collectively as Shelterin. These telosomal proteins protect the ends of chromosomes against end-to-end fusion and degradation. Short telomeres in breast cancer cells confer telomere dysfunction and this can be related to Shelterin proteins and their level of expression in breast cancer cell lines. This study investigates whether expression of Shelterin and Shelterin-associated proteins are altered, and influence the protection and maintenance of telomeres, in breast cancer cells. 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-CdR) and trichostatin A (TSA) were used in an attempt to reactivate the expression of silenced genes. Our studies have shown that Shelterin and Shelterin-associated genes were down-regulated in breast cancer cell lines; this may be due to epigenetic modification of DNA as the promoter region of POT1 was found to be partially methylated. Shelterin genes expression was up-regulated upon treatment of 21NT breast cancer cells with 5-aza-CdR and TSA. The telomere length of treated 21NT cells was measured by q-PCR showed an increase in telomere length at different time points. Our studies have shown that down-regulation of Shelterin genes is partially due to methylation in some epithelial breast cancer cell lines. Removal of epigenetic silencing results in up-regulation of Shelterin and Shelterin-associated genes which can then lead to telomere length elongation and stability.

Evaluation of unrestricted somatic stem cells as a feeder layer to support undifferentiated embryonic stem cells.

The use of unrestricted somatic stem cells (USSCs) holds great promise for future clinical applications. Conventionally, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or other animal-based feeder layers are used to support embryonic stem cell (ESC) growth; the use of such feeder cells increases the risk of retroviral and other pathogenic infection in clinical trials. Implementation of a human-based feeder layer, such as hUSSCs that are isolated from human sources, lowers such risks. Isolated cord blood USSCs derived from various donors were used as a novel, supportive feeder layer for growth of C4mES cells (Royan C4 ESCs). Complete cellular characterization using immunocytochemical and flow cytometric methods were performed on murine ESCs (mESCs) and hUSSCs. mESCs cultured on hUSSCs showed similar cellular morphology and presented the same cell markers of undifferentiated mESC as would have been observed in mESCs grown on MEFs. Our data revealed these cells had negative expression of Stat3, Sox2, and Fgf4 genes while showing positive expression for Pou5f1, Nanog, Rex1, Brachyury, Lif, Lifr, Tert, B2m, and Bmp4 genes. Moreover, mESCs cultured on hUSSCs exhibited proven differentiation potential to germ cell layers showing normal karyotype. The major advantage of hUSSCs is their ability to be continuously cultured for at least 50 passages. We have also found that hUSSCs have the potential to provide ESC support from the early moments of isolation. Further study of hUSSC as a novel human feeder layer may lead to their incorporation into clinical methods, making them a vital part of the application of human ESCs in clinical cell therapy.

Cell transformation assays for prediction of carcinogenic potential: state of the science and future research needs.

Cell transformation assays (CTAs) have long been proposed as in vitro methods for the identification of potential chemical carcinogens. Despite showing good correlation with rodent bioassay data, concerns over the subjective nature of using morphological criteria for identifying transformed cells and a lack of understanding of the mechanistic basis of the assays has limited their acceptance for regulatory purposes. However, recent drivers to find alternative carcinogenicity assessment methodologies, such as the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive, have fuelled renewed interest in CTAs. Research is currently ongoing to improve the objectivity of the assays, reveal the underlying molecular changes leading to transformation and explore the use of novel cell types. The UK NC3Rs held an international workshop in November 2010 to review the current state of the art in this field and provide directions for future research. This paper outlines the key points highlighted at this meeting.

Functional role of SETD2, BAP1, PARP-3 and PBRM1 candidate genes on the regulation of hTERT gene expression.

Narrowing the search for the critical hTERT repressor sequence(s) has identified three regions on chromosome 3p (3p12-p21.1, 3p21.2 and 3p21.3-p22). However, the precise location and identity of the sequence(s) responsible for hTERT transcriptional repression remains elusive. In order to identify critical hTERT repressor sequences located within human chromosome 3p12-p22, we investigated hTERT transcriptional activity within 21NT microcell hybrid clones containing chromosome 3 fragments. Mapping of chromosome 3 structure in a single hTERT-repressed 21NT-#3fragment hybrid clone, revealed a 490kb region of deletion localised to 3p21.3 and encompassing the histone H3, lysine 36 (H3K36) trimethyltransferase enzyme SETD2; a putative tumour suppressor gene in breast cancer. Three additional genes, BAP1, PARP-3 and PBRM1, were also selected for further investigation based on their location within the 3p21.1-p21.3 region, together with their documented role in the epigenetic regulation of target gene expression or hTERT regulation. All four genes (SETD2, BAP1, PARP-3 and PBRM1) were found to be expressed at low levels in 21NT. Gene copy number variation (CNV) analysis of SETD2, BAP1, PARP-3 and PBRM1 within a panel of nine breast cancer cell lines demonstrated single copy number loss of all candidate genes within five (56%) cell lines (including 21NT cells). Stable, forced overexpression of BAP1, but not PARP2, SETD2 or PBRM1, within 21NT cells was associated with a significant reduction in hTERT expression levels relative to wild-type controls. We propose that at least two sequences exist on human chromosome 3p, that function to regulate hTERT transcription within human breast cancer cells.

A mechanistic evaluation of the Syrian hamster embryo cell transformation assay (pH 6.7) and molecular events leading to senescence bypass in SHE cells.

The implementation of the Syrian hamster embryo cell transformation assay (SHE CTA) into test batteries and its relevance in predicting carcinogenicity has been long debated. Despite prevalidation studies to ensure reproducibility and minimise the subjective nature of the assay's endpoint, an underlying mechanistic and molecular basis supporting morphological transformation (MT) as an indicator of carcinogenesis is still missing. We found that only 20% of benzo(a)pyrene-induced MT clones immortalised suggesting that, alone, the MT phenotype is insufficient for senescence bypass. From a total of 12 B(a)P- immortalised MT lines, inactivating p53 mutations were identified in 30% of clones, and the majority of these were consistent with the potent carcinogen's mode of action. Expression of p16 was commonly silenced or markedly reduced with extensive promoter methylation observed in 45% of MT clones, while Bmi1 was strongly upregulated in 25% of clones. In instances where secondary events to MT appeared necessary for senescence bypass, as evidenced by a transient cellular crisis, clonal growth correlated with monoallelic deletion of the CDKN2A/B locus. The findings further implicate the importance of p16 and p53 pathways in regulating senescence while providing a molecular evaluation of SHE CTA -derived variant MT clones induced by benzo(a)pyrene.

Identification of telomere dysfunction in Friedreich ataxia.

BACKGROUND: Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is a progressive inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutation of the FXN gene, resulting in decreased frataxin expression, mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. A recent study has identified shorter telomeres in FRDA patient leukocytes as a possible disease biomarker. RESULTS: Here we aimed to investigate both telomere structure and function in FRDA cells. Our results confirmed telomere shortening in FRDA patient leukocytes and identified similar telomere shortening in FRDA patient autopsy cerebellar tissues. However, FRDA fibroblasts showed significantly longer telomeres at early passage, occurring in the absence of telomerase activity, but with activation of an alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT)-like mechanism. These cells also showed accelerated telomere shortening as population doubling increases. Furthermore, telomere dysfunction-induced foci (TIF) analysis revealed that FRDA fibroblasts have dysfunctional telomeres. CONCLUSIONS: Our finding of dysfunctional telomeres in FRDA cells provides further insight into FRDA molecular disease mechanisms, which may have implications for future FRDA therapy.

Analysis of telomere length and function in radiosensitive mouse and human cells in response to DNA-PKcs inhibition.

BACKGROUND: Telomeres, the physical ends of chromosomes, play an important role in preserving genomic integrity. This protection is supported by telomere binding proteins collectively known as the shelterin complex. The shelterin complex protects chromosome ends by suppressing DNA damage response and acting as a regulator of telomere length maintenance by telomerase, an enzyme that elongates telomeres. Telomere dysfunction manifests in different forms including chromosomal end-to-end fusion, telomere shortening and p53-dependent apoptosis and/or senescence. An important shelterin-associated protein with critical role in telomere protection in human and mouse cells is the catalytic subunit of DNA-protein kinase (DNA-PKcs). DNA-PKcs deficiency in mouse cells results in elevated levels of spontaneous telomeric fusion, a marker of telomere dysfunction, but does not cause telomere length shortening. Similarly, inhibition of DNA-PKcs with chemical inhibitor, IC86621, prevents chromosomal end protection through mechanism reminiscent of dominant-negative reduction in DNA-PKcs activity. RESULTS: We demonstrate here that the IC86621 mediated inhibition of DNA-PKcs in two mouse lymphoma cell lines results not only in elevated frequencies of chromosome end-to-end fusions, but also accelerated telomere shortening in the presence of telomerase. Furthermore, we observed increased levels of spontaneous telomeric fusions in Artemis defective human primary fibroblasts in which DNA-PKcs was inhibited, but no significant changes in telomere length. CONCLUSION: These results confirm that DNA-PKcs plays an active role in chromosome end protection in mouse and human cells. Furthermore, it appears that DNA-PKcs is also involved in telomere length regulation, independently of telomerase activity, in mouse lymphoma cells but not in human cells.

P14ARF is down-regulated during tumour progression and predicts the clinical outcome in human breast cancer.

UNLABELLED: The objective of this study was to determine the mRNA expression for p14 and p16 in a cohort of women with breast cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Breast cancer specimens (N= 127) and normal tissue (N=23) specimens were studied. Transcript levels were determined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and were correlated with clinicopathological data collected over 10 years. RESULTS: Higher p14 mRNA transcript levels were associated with non-cancerous background tissue specimens (median copy numbers: 103 vs. 4, p=0.0095), with better overall and disease-free survival, and in TNM2 stage tumours (TNM2 vs. TNM1, 27.2 vs. 3.5, p=0.049; TNM1/TNM2 vs. TNM3/4, 26 vs. 2, p=0.009). There was no significant relationship between p16 levels and clinicopathological parameters. A correlation between p14 and human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) levels was observed (r=0.406, p=0.00005). CONCLUSION: p14 expression seems to increase initially in early breast cancer and decrease with further tumour progression. p14 may be induced to counteract immortalisation and hTERT surge.

Effects of BRCA2 deficiency on telomere recombination in non-ALT and ALT cells.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies suggest that BRCA2 affects telomere maintenance. Interestingly, anti cancer treatments that involve BRCA2 and telomerase individually are currently being explored. In the light of the above recent studies their combinatorial targeting may be justified in the development of future treatments. In order to investigate effects of BRCA2 that can be explored for this combinatorial targeting we focused on the analysis of recombination rates at telomeres by monitoring T-SCEs (Telomere Sister Chromatid Exchanges). RESULTS: We observed a significant increase in T-SCE frequencies in four BRCA2 defective human cell lines thus suggesting that BRCA2 suppresses recombination at telomeres. To test this hypothesis further we analyzed T-SCE frequencies in a set of Chinese hamster cell lines with or without functional BRCA2. Our results indicate that introduction of functional BRCA2 normalizes frequencies of T-SCEs thus supporting the notion that BRCA2 suppresses recombination at telomeres. Given that ALT (Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres) positive cells maintain telomeres by recombination we investigated the effect of BRCA2 depletion in these cells. Our results show that this depletion causes a dramatic reduction in T-SCE frequencies in ALT positive cells, but not in non-ALT cells. CONCLUSION: BRCA2 suppresses recombination at telomeres in cells that maintain them by conventional mechanisms. Furthermore, BRCA2 depletion in ALT positive cells reduces high levels of T-SCEs normally found in these cells. Our results could be potentially important for refining telomerase-based anti-cancer therapies.

Defective Artemis causes mild telomere dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Repair of DNA double strand breaks by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) requires several proteins including Ku, DNA-PKcs, Artemis, XRCC4, Ligase IV and XLF. Two of these proteins, namely Ku and DNA-PKcs, are also involved in maintenance of telomeres, chromosome end-structures. In contrast, cells defective in Ligase IV and XRCC4 do not show changes in telomere length or function suggesting that these proteins are not involved in telomere maintenance. Since a mouse study indicated that defective Artemis may cause telomere dysfunction we investigated the effects of defective Artemis on telomere maintenance in human cells. RESULTS: We observed significantly elevated frequencies of telomeric fusions in two primary fibroblast cell lines established from Artemis defective patients relative to the control cell line. The frequencies of telomeric fusions increased after exposure of Artemis defective cells to ionizing radiation. Furthermore, we observed increased incidence of DNA damage at telomeres in Artemis defective cells that underwent more than 32 population doublings using the TIF (Telomere dysfunction Induced Foci) assay. We have also inhibited the expression levels of DNA-PKcs in Artemis defective cell lines by either using synthetic inhibitor (IC86621) or RNAi and observed their greater sensitivity to telomere dysfunction relative to control cells. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that defective Artemis causes a mild telomere dysfunction phenotype in human cell lines.