Single-cell profiling of African swine fever virus disease in the pig spleen reveals viral and host dynamics.

African swine fever, one of the major viral diseases of swine, poses an imminent threat to the global pig industry. The high-efficient replication of the causative agent African swine fever virus (ASFV) in various organs in pigs greatly contributes to the disease. However, how ASFV manipulates the cell population to drive high-efficient replication of the virus in vivo remains unclear. Here, we found that the spleen reveals the most severe pathological manifestation with the highest viral loads among various organs in pigs during ASFV infection. By using single-cell-RNA-sequencing technology and multiple methods, we determined that macrophages and monocytes are the major cell types infected by ASFV in the spleen, showing high viral-load heterogeneity. A rare subpopulation of immature monocytes represents the major population infected at late infection stage. ASFV causes massive death of macrophages, but shifts its infection into these monocytes which significantly arise after the infection. The apoptosis, interferon response, and antigen-presentation capacity are inhibited in these monocytes which benefits prolonged infection of ASFV in vivo. Until now, the role of immature monocytes as an important target by ASFV has been overlooked due to that they do not express classical monocyte marker CD14. The present study indicates that the shift of viral infection from macrophages to the immature monocytes is critical for maintaining prolonged ASFV infection in vivo. This study sheds light on ASFV tropism, replication, and infection dynamics, and elicited immune response, which may instruct future research on antiviral strategies.

PolyQ-expanded ataxin-2 aggregation impairs cellular processing-body homeostasis via sequestering the RNA helicase DDX6.

Ataxin-2 (Atx2) is a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract-containing RNA-binding protein, while its polyQ expansion may cause protein aggregation that is implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2). However, the molecular mechanism underlying how Atx2 aggregation contributes to the proteinopathies remains elusive. Here, we investigated the influence of Atx2 aggregation on the assembly and functionality of cellular processing bodies (P-bodies) by using biochemical and fluorescence imaging approaches. We have revealed that polyQ-expanded (PQE) Atx2 sequesters the DEAD-box RNA helicase (DDX6), an essential component of P-bodies, into aggregates or puncta via some RNA sequences. The N-terminal like-Sm (LSm) domain of Atx2 (residues 82-184) and the C-terminal helicase domain of DDX6 are responsible for the interaction and specific sequestration. Moreover, sequestration of DDX6 may aggravate pre-mRNA mis-splicing, and interfere with the assembly of cellular P-bodies, releasing the endoribonuclease MARF1 that promotes mRNA decay and translational repression. Rescuing the DDX6 protein level can recover the assembly and functionality of P-bodies, preventing targeted mRNA from degradation. This study provides a line of evidence for sequestration of the P-body components and impairment of the P-body homeostasis in dysregulating RNA metabolism, which is implicated in the disease pathologies and a potential therapeutic target.

Impaired interferon response in senecavirus A infection and identification of 3Cpro as an antagonist.

Senecavirus A (SVA), a picornavirus, causes vesicular diseases and epidemic transient neonatal losses in swine, resulting in a multifaceted economic impact on the swine industry. SVA counteracts host antiviral response through multiple strategies facilitatng viral infection and transmission. However, the mechanism of how SVA modulates interferon (IFN) response remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that SVA 3C protease (3Cpro) blocks the transduction of Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) signaling pathway to antagonize type I IFN response. Mechanistically, 3Cpro selectively cleaves and degrades STAT1 and STAT2 while does not target JAK1, JAK2, and IRF9, through its protease activity. Notably, SVA 3Cpro cleaves human and porcine STAT1 on a Leucine (L)-Aspartic acid (D) motif, specifically L693/D694. In the case of STAT2, two cleavage sites were identified: glutamine (Q) 707 was identified in both human and porcine, while the second cleavage pattern differed, with residues 754-757 (Valine-Leucine-Glutamine-Serine motifs) in human STAT2 and Q758 in porcine STAT2. These cleavage patterns by SVA 3Cpro partially differ from previously reported classical motifs recognized by other picornaviral 3Cpro, highlighting the distinct characteristics of SVA 3Cpro. Together, these results reveal a mechanism by which SVA 3Cpro antagonizes IFN-induced antiviral response but also expands our knowledge about the substrate recognition patterns for picornaviral 3Cpro.IMPORTANCESenecavirus A (SVA), the only member in the Senecavirus genus within the Picornaviridae family, causes vesicular diseases in pigs that are clinically indistinguishable from foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), a highly contagious viral disease listed by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). Interferon (IFN)-mediated antiviral response plays a pivotal role in restricting and controlling viral infection. Picornaviruses evolved numerous strategies to antagonize host antiviral response. However, how SVA modulates the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, influencing the type I IFN response, remains elusive. Here, we identify that 3Cpro, a protease of SVA, functions as an antagonist for the IFN response. 3Cpro utilizes its protease activity to cleave STAT1 and STAT2, thereby diminishing the host IFN response to promote SVA infection. Our findings underscore the significance of 3Cpro as a key virulence factor in the antagonism of the type I signaling pathway during SVA infection.

Peste Des Petits Ruminants Virus Nucleocapsid Protein Interacts with Protein Kinase R-Activating Protein and Induces Stress Granules To Promote Viral Replication.

The pathogenic mechanisms of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection remain poorly understood, leaving peste des petits ruminants (PPR) control and eradication especially difficult. Here, we determined that PPRV nucleocapsid (N) protein triggers formation of stress granules (SGs) to benefit viral replication. A mass spectrometry-based profiling of the interactome of PPRV N protein revealed that PPRV N protein interacted with protein kinase R (PKR)-activating protein (PACT), and this interaction was confirmed in the context of PPRV infection. PACT was essential for PPRV replication. Besides, the ectopic expression of N activated the PKR/eIF2α (α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2) pathway through induction of PKR phosphorylation, but it did not induce PKR phosphorylation in PACT-deficient (PACT-/-) cells. PPRV N interacted with PACT, impairing the interaction between PACT and a PKR inhibitor, transactivation response RNA-binding protein (TRBP), which subsequently enhanced the interaction between PACT and PKR and thus promoted the activation of PKR and eIF2α phosphorylation, resulting in formation of stress granules (SGs). Consistently, PPRV infection induced SG formation through activation of the PKR/eIF2α pathway, and knockdown of N impaired PPRV-induced SG formation. PPRV-induced SG formation significantly decreased in PACT-/- cells as well. The role of SG formation in PPRV replication was subsequently investigated, which showed that SG formation plays a positive role in PPRV replication. By using an RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization assay, we found that PPRV-induced SGs hid cellular mRNA rather than viral mRNA. Altogether, our data provide the first evidence that PPRV N protein plays a role in modulating the PKR/eIF2α/SG axis and promotes virus replication through targeting PACT. IMPORTANCE Stress granule (SG) formation is a conserved cellular strategy to reduce stress-related damage regulating cell survival. A mass spectrometry-based profiling of the interactome of PPRV N protein revealed that PPRV N interacted with PACT to regulate the assembly of SGs. N protein inhibited the interaction between PACT and a PKR inhibitor, TRBP, through binding to the M1 domain of PACT, which enhanced the interaction between PACT and PKR and thus promoted PKR activation and subsequent eIF2α phosphorylation as well as SG formation. The regulatory function of N protein was strikingly abrogated in PACT-/- cells. SGs induced by PPRV infection through the PKR/eIF2α pathway are PACT dependent. The loss-of-function assay indicated that PPRV-induced SGs were critical for PPRV replication. We concluded that the PPRV N protein manipulates the host PKR/eIF2α/SG axis to favor virus replication.

The Insufficient Activation of RIG-I-Like Signaling Pathway Contributes to Highly Efficient Replication of Porcine Picornaviruses in IBRS-2 Cells.

Seneca Valley virus (SVV) or commonly known as senecavirus A, is one of the picornavirus that is associated with vesicular disease and neonatal mortality in swine herds. Our previous study found that SVV replicates extremely faster in porcine Instituto Biologico-Rim Suino-2 (IBRS-2) cells than that in porcine kidney-15 (PK-15) cells. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we comprehensively compared the expression features between IBRS-2 cells and PK-15 cells in response to SVV infection by an unbiased high-throughput quantitative proteomic analysis. We found that the innate immune response-related pathways were efficiently activated in PK-15 cells but not in IBRS-2 cells during SVV infection. A large amount of interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes were induced in PK-15 cells. In contrast, no IFN-stimulated genes were induced in IBRS-2 cells. Besides, we determined similar results in the two cell lines infected by another porcine picornavirus foot-and-mouth disease virus. Further study demonstrated that the Janus kinase signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling pathway was functioning properly in both IBRS-2 and PK-15 cells. A systematic screening study revealed that the aberrant signal transduction from TANK-binding kinase 1 to IFN regulatory factor 3 in the retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptor signaling pathway in IBRS-2 cells was the fundamental cause of the different innate immune response manifestation and different viral replication rate in the two cell lines. Together, our findings determined the different features of IBRS-2 and PK-15 cell lines, which will help for clarification of the pathogenesis of SVV. Besides, identification of the underlying mechanisms will provide new targets and an insight for decreasing the viral clearance rate and probably improve the oncolytic effect by SVV in cancer cells.

Coaggregation of polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins is mediated by polyQ-tract interactions and impairs cellular proteostasis.

Nine polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins have already been identified that are considered to be associated with the pathologies of neurodegenerative disorders called polyQ diseases, but whether these polyQ proteins mutually interact and synergize in proteinopathies remains to be elucidated. In this study, 4 polyQ-containing proteins, androgen receptor (AR), ataxin-7 (Atx7), huntingtin (Htt) and ataxin-3 (Atx3), are used as model molecules to investigate their heterologous coaggregation and consequent impact on cellular proteostasis. Our data indicate that the N-terminal fragment of polyQ-expanded (PQE) Atx7 or Htt can coaggregate with and sequester AR and Atx3 into insoluble aggregates or inclusions through their respective polyQ tracts. In vitro coprecipitation and NMR titration experiments suggest that this specific coaggregation depends on polyQ lengths and is probably mediated by polyQ-tract interactions. Luciferase reporter assay shows that these coaggregation and sequestration effects can deplete the cellular availability of AR and consequently impair its transactivation function. This study provides valid evidence supporting the viewpoint that coaggregation of polyQ proteins is mediated by polyQ-tract interactions and benefits our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the accumulation of different polyQ proteins in inclusions and their copathological causes of polyQ diseases.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus 3B Protein Interacts with Pattern Recognition Receptor RIG-I to Block RIG-I-Mediated Immune Signaling and Inhibit Host Antiviral Response.

Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious disease of pigs, sheep, goats, bovine, and various wild cloven-hoofed animals caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) that has given rise to significant economic loss to global livestock industry. FMDV 3B protein is an important determinant of virulence of the virus. Modifications in 3B protein of FMDV considerably decrease virus yield. In the current study, we demonstrated the significant role of 3B protein in suppression of type I IFN production and host antiviral response in both human embryonic kidney HEK293T cells and porcine kidney PK-15 cells. We found that 3B protein interacted with the viral RNA sensor RIG-I to block RIG-I-mediated immune signaling. 3B protein did not affect the expression of RIG-I but interacted with RIG-I to block the interaction between RIG-I and the E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM25, which prevented the TRIM25-mediated, Lys63-linked ubiquitination and activation of RIG-I. This inhibition of RIG-I-mediated immune signaling by 3B protein decreased IFN-ß, IFN-stimulated genes, and proinflammatory cytokines expression, which in turn promoted FMDV replication. All of the three nonidentical copies of 3B could inhibit type I IFN production, and the aa 17A in each copy of 3B was involved in suppression of IFN-related antiviral response during FMDV infection in porcine cells. Together, our results indicate the role of 3B in suppression of host innate immune response and reveal a novel antagonistic mechanism of FMDV that is mediated by 3B protein.

Innate immune evasion by picornaviruses.

The family Picornaviridae comprises a large number of viruses that cause disease in broad spectrum of hosts, which have posed serious public health concerns worldwide and led to significant economic burden. A comprehensive understanding of the virus-host interactions during picornavirus infections will help to prevent and cure these diseases. Upon picornavirus infection, host pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) sense viral RNA to activate host innate immune responses. The activated PRRs initiate signal transduction through a series of adaptor proteins, which leads to activation of several kinases and transcription factors, and contributes to the consequent expression of interferons (IFNs), IFN-inducible antiviral genes, as well as various inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In contrast, to maintain viral replication and spread, picornaviruses have evolved several elegant strategies to block innate immune signaling and hinder host antiviral response. In this review, we will summarize the recent progress of how the members of family Picornaviridae counteract host immune response through evasion of PRRs detection, blocking activation of adaptor molecules and kinases, disrupting transcription factors, as well as counteraction of antiviral restriction factors. Such knowledge of immune evasion will help us better understand the pathogenesis of picornaviruses, and provide insights into developing antiviral strategies and improvement of vaccines.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Capsid Protein VP1 Interacts with Host Ribosomal Protein SA To Maintain Activation of the MAPK Signal Pathway and Promote Virus Replication.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the causative agent of foot-and-mouth disease, a highly contagious, economically important viral disease. The structural protein VP1 plays significant roles during FMDV infection. Here, we identified that VP1 interacted with host ribosomal protein SA (RPSA). RPSA is a viral receptor for dengue virus and classical swine fever virus infections. However, the incubation of susceptible cells using the anti-RPSA antibodies did not block the infection of FMDV. Overexpression of porcine RPSA in the insusceptible cells could not trigger FMDV infection, suggesting that RPSA was not responsible for FMDV entry and infection. On the contrary, we found that overexpression of RPSA suppressed FMDV replication, and knockdown of RPSA enhanced FMDV replication. We further determined that FMDV infection activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and demonstrated that MAPK pathway activation was critically important for FMDV replication. RPSA negatively regulated MAPK pathway activation during FMDV infection and displayed an antiviral function. FMDV VP1 interacted with RPSA to abrogate the RPSA-mediated suppressive role in MAPK pathway activation. Together, our study indicated that MAPK pathway activation was required for FMDV replication and that host RPSA played a negatively regulatory role on MAPK pathway activation to suppress FMDV replication. FMDV VP1 bound to RPSA to promote viral replication by repressing RPSA-mediated function and maintaining the activation of MAPK signal pathway.IMPORTANCE Identification of virus-cell interactions is essential for making strategies to limit virus replication and refine the models of virus replication. This study demonstrated that FMDV utilized the MAPK pathway for viral replication. The host RPSA protein inhibited FMDV replication by suppressing the activation of the MAPK pathway during FMDV infection. FMDV VP1 bound to RPSA to repress the RPSA-mediated regulatory effect on MAPK pathway activation. This study revealed an important implication of the MAPK pathway for FMDV infection and identified a novel mechanism by which FMDV VP1 has evolved to interact with RPSA and maintain the activation of the MAPK pathway, elucidating new information regarding the signal reprogramming of host cells by FMDV.

Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Nucleocapsid Protein Inhibits Beta Interferon Production by Interacting with IRF3 To Block Its Activation.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is the etiological agent of peste des petits ruminants, causing acute immunosuppression in its natural hosts. However, the molecular mechanisms by which PPRV antagonizes the host immune responses have not been fully characterized. In particular, how PPRV suppresses the activation of the host RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) pathway has yet to be clarified. In this study, we demonstrated that PPRV infection significantly suppresses RLR pathway activation and type I interferon (IFN) production and identified PPRV N protein as an extremely important antagonistic viral factor that suppresses beta interferon (IFN-ß) and IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. A detailed analysis showed that PPRV N protein inhibited type I IFN production by targeting interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a key molecule in the RLR pathway required for type I IFN induction. PPRV N protein interacted with IRF3 (but not with other components of the RLR pathway, including MDA5, RIG-I, VISA, TBK1, and MITA) and abrogated the phosphorylation of IRF3. As expected, PPRV N protein also considerably impaired the nuclear translocation of IRF3. The TBK1-IRF3 interaction was involved significantly in IRF3 phosphorylation, and we showed that PPRV N protein inhibits the association between TBK1 and IRF3, which in turn inhibits IRF3 phosphorylation. The amino acid region 106 to 210 of PPRV N protein was determined to be essential for suppressing the nuclear translocation of IRF3 and IFN-ß production, and the 140 to 400 region of IRF3 was identified as the crucial region for the N-IRF3 interaction. Together, our findings demonstrate a new mechanism evolved by PPRV to inhibit type I IFN production and provide structural insights into the immunosuppression caused by PPRV.IMPORTANCE Peste des petits ruminants is a highly contagious animal disease affecting small ruminants, which threatens both small livestock and endangered susceptible wildlife populations in many countries. The causative agent, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), often causes acute immunosuppression in its natural hosts during infection. Here, for the first time, we demonstrate that N protein, the most abundant protein of PPRV, plays an extremely important role in suppression of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) function and type I interferon (IFN) production by interfering with the formation of the TBK1-IRF3 complex. This study explored a novel antagonistic mechanism of PPRV.

RIG-I is responsible for activation of type I interferon pathway in Seneca Valley virus-infected porcine cells to suppress viral replication.

BACKGROUND: Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) is a key cytosolic receptor of the innate immune system. Seneca valley virus (SVV) is a newly emerging RNA virus that infects pigs causing significant economic losses in pig industry. RIG-I plays different roles during different viruses infections. The role of RIG-I in SVV-infected cells remains unknown. Understanding of the role of RIG-I during SVV infection will help to clarify the infection process of SVV in the infected cells. METHODS: In this study, we generated a RIG-I knockout (KO) porcine kidney PK-15 cell line using the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease (Cas9) genome editing tool. The RIG-I gene sequence of RIG-I KO cells were determined by Sanger sequencing method, and the expression of RIG-I protein in the RIG-I KO cells were detected by Western bloting. The activation status of type I interferon pathway in Sendai virus (SeV)- or SVV-infected RIG-I KO cells was investigated by measuring the mRNA expression levels of interferon (IFN)-ß and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). The replicative state of SVV in the RIG-I KO cells was evaluated by qPCR, Western bloting, TCID50 assay and indirect immunofluorescence assay. RESULTS: Gene editing of RIG-I in PK-15 cells successfully resulted in the destruction of RIG-I expression. RIG-I KO PK-15 cells had a lower expression of IFN-ß and ISGs compared with wildtype (WT) PK-15 cells when stimulated by the model RNA virus SeV. The amounts of viral RNA and viral protein as well as viral yields in SVV-infected RIG-I WT and KO cells were determined and compared, which showed that knockout of RIG-I significantly increased SVV replication and propagation. Meanwhile, the expression of IFN-ß and ISGs were considerably decreased in RIG-I KO cells compared with that in RIG-I WT cells during SVV infection. CONCLUSION: Altogether, this study indicated that RIG-I showed an antiviral role against SVV and was essential for activation of type I IFN signaling during SVV infection. In addition, this study suggested that the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be used as an effective tool to modify cell lines to increase viral yields during SVV vaccine development.

Evolution of Newcastle Disease Virus Quasispecies Diversity and Enhanced Virulence after Passage through Chicken Air Sacs.

UNLABELLED: It has been reported that lentogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates have the potential to become velogenic after their transmission and circulation in chickens, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. In this study, a highly velogenic NDV variant, JS10-A10, was generated from the duck-origin lentogenic isolate JS10 through 10 consecutive passages in chicken air sacs. The velogenic properties of this selected variant were determined using mean death time (MDT) assays, intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), the intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI), histopathology, and the analysis of host tissue tropism. In contrast, JS10 remained lentogenic after 20 serial passages in chicken eggs (JS10-E20). The JS10, JS10-A10, and JS10-E20 genomes were sequenced and found to be nearly identical, suggesting that both JS10-A10 and JS10-E20 were directly generated from JS10. To investigate the mechanism for virulence enhancement, the partial genome covering the F0 cleavage site of JS10 and its variants were analyzed using ultradeep pyrosequencing (UDPS) and the proportions of virulence-related genomes in the quasispecies were calculated. Velogenic NDV genomes accumulated as a function of JS10 passaging through chicken air sacs. Our data suggest that lentogenic NDV strains circulating among poultry might be a risk factor to future potential velogenic NDV outbreaks in chickens. IMPORTANCE: An avirulent isolate, JS10, was passaged through chicken air sacs and embryos, and the pathogenicity of the variants was assessed. A virulent variant, JS10-A10, was generated from consecutive passage in air sacs. We developed a deep-sequencing approach to detect low-frequency viral variants across the NDV genome. We observed that virulence enhancement of JS10 was due to the selective accumulation of velogenic quasispecies and the concomitant disappearance of lentogenic quasispecies. Our results suggest that because it is difficult to avoid contact between natural waterfowl reservoirs and sensitive poultry operations, circulating lentogenic NDV strains may represent a potential reservoir for emergent velogenic NDV strains that could cause outbreaks in chickens.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Viroporin 2B Antagonizes RIG-I-Mediated Antiviral Effects by Inhibition of Its Protein Expression.

The role of retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) in foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)-infected cells remains unknown. Here, we showed that RIG-I inhibits FMDV replication in host cells. FMDV infection increased the transcription of RIG-I, while it decreased RIG-I protein expression. A detailed analysis revealed that FMDV leader proteinase (Lpro), as well as 3C proteinase (3Cpro) and 2B protein, decreased RIG-I protein expression. Lpro and 3Cpro are viral proteinases that can cleave various host proteins and are responsible for several of the viral polyprotein cleavages. However, for the first time, we observed 2B-induced reduction of host protein. Further studies showed that 2B-mediated reduction of RIG-I is specific to FMDV, but not other picornaviruses, including encephalomyocarditis virus, enterovirus 71, and coxsackievirus A16. Moreover, we found the decreased protein level of RIG-I is independent of the cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma, the induction of cellular apoptosis, or the association of proteasome, lysosome, and caspase pathways. A direct interaction was observed between RIG-I and 2B. The carboxyl-terminal amino acids 105 to 114 and amino acids 135 to 144 of 2B were essential for the reduction of RIG-I, while residues 105 to 114 were required for the interaction. These data suggest the antiviral role of RIG-I against FMDV and a novel antagonistic mechanism of FMDV that is mediated by 2B protein. IMPORTANCE: This study demonstrated that RIG-I could suppress FMDV replication during virus infection. FMDV infection increased the transcriptional expression of RIG-I, while it decreased RIG-I protein expression. FMDV 2B protein interacted with RIG-I and induced reduction of RIG-I. 2B-induced reduction of RIG-I was independent of the induction of the cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma or cellular apoptosis. In addition, proteasome, lysosome, and caspase pathways were not involved in this process. This study provides new insight into the immune evasion mediated by FMDV and identifies 2B as an antagonistic factor for FMDV to evade the antiviral response.

Development of real-time and lateral flow dipstick recombinase polymerase amplification assays for rapid detection of goatpox virus and sheeppox virus.

BACKGROUND: Goatpox virus (GTPV) and sheeppox virus (SPPV), which belong to the Capripoxvirus (CaPV), are economically important pathogens of small ruminants. Therefore, a sensitive, specific and rapid diagnostic assay for detection of GTPV and SPPV is necessary to accurately and promptly control these diseases. METHODS: Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assays combined with a real-time fluorescent detection (real-time RPA assay) and lateral flow dipstick (RPA LFD assay) were developed targeting the CaPV G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR) gene, respectively. RESULTS: The sensitivity of both CaPV real-time RPA assay and CaPV RPA LFD assay were 3 × 102 copies per reaction within 20 min at 38 °C. Both assays were highly specific for CaPV, with no cross-reactions with peste des petits ruminants virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus and Orf virus. The evaluation of the performance of these two assays with clinical sample (n = 107) showed that the CaPV real-time RPA assay and CaPV RPA LFD assay were able to specially detect SPPV or GTPV present in samples of ovine in liver, lung, kidney, spleen, skin and blood. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided a highly time-efficient and simple alternative for rapid detection of GTPV and SPPV.

Ataxin-2 sequesters Raptor into aggregates and impairs cellular mTORC1 signaling.

Ataxin-2 (Atx2) is a polyglutamine (polyQ) protein, in which abnormal expansion of the polyQ tract can trigger protein aggregation and consequently cause spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2), but the mechanism underlying how Atx2 aggregation leads to proteinopathy remains elusive. Here, we investigate the molecular mechanism and cellular consequences of Atx2 aggregation by molecular cell biology approaches. We have revealed that either normal or polyQ-expanded Atx2 can sequester Raptor, a component of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), into aggregates based on their specific interaction. Further research indicates that the polyQ tract and the N-terminal region (residues 1-784) of Atx2 are responsible for the specific sequestration. Moreover, this sequestration leads to suppression of the mTORC1 activity as represented by down-regulation of phosphorylated P70S6K, which can be reversed by overexpression of Raptor. As mTORC1 is a key regulator of autophagy, Atx2 aggregation and sequestration also induces autophagy by upregulating LC3-II and reducing phosphorylated ULK1 levels. This study proposes that Atx2 sequesters Raptor into aggregates, thereby impairing cellular mTORC1 signaling and inducing autophagy, and will be beneficial for a better understanding of the pathogenesis of SCA2 and other polyQ diseases.

Juvenile Hormone Membrane Signaling Enhances its Intracellular Signaling Through Phosphorylation of Met and Hsp83.

Juvenile hormone (JH) regulates insect development and reproduction through both intracellular and membrane signaling, and the two pathways might crosstalk with each other. Recent studies have reported that JH membrane signaling induces phosphorylation of the JH intracellular receptor Met, thus enhancing its transcriptional activity. To gain more insights into JH-induced Met phosphorylation, we here performed phosphoproteomics to identify potential phosphorylation sites of Met and its paralog Germ-cell expressed (Gce) in Drosophila Kc cells. In vitro experiments demonstrate that JH-induced phosphorylation sites in the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain, but not in the Per-Arnt-Sim-B (PAS-B) domain, are required for maximization of Met transcriptional activity. Moreover, phosphoproteomics analysis reveale that JH also induces the phosphorylation of Hsp83, a chaperone protein involved in JH-activated Met nuclear import. The JH-induced Hsp83 phosphorylation at S219 facilitates Hsp83-Met binding, thus promoting Met nuclear import and its transcription. By using proteomics, subcellular distribution, and co-immunoprecipitation approaches, we further characterized 14-3-3 proteins as negative regulators of Met nuclear import through physical interaction with Hsp83. These results show that JH membrane signaling induces phosphorylation of the key components in JH intracellular signaling, such as Met and Hsp83, and consequently facilitating JH intracellular signaling.

African Swine Fever Virus F317L Protein Inhibits NF-κB Activation To Evade Host Immune Response and Promote Viral Replication.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and deadly viral disease affecting pigs, with up to a 100% case fatality rate. The causative agent, African swine fever virus (ASFV), is a large multienveloped DNA virus which is the sole member of the family Asfarviridae. The double-stranded DNA genome of ASFV encodes more than 150 proteins; the functions of more than half of these viral proteins remain unknown. In this study, we determined that the uncharacterized protein F317L of ASFV had an antagonistic function against host innate immune response. F317L impaired NF-κB pathway activation by disruption of NF-κB activity. F317L interacted with IκB kinase ß (IKKß) and suppressed its phosphorylation, which subsequently reduced phosphorylation and ubiquitination of IκBα and enhanced IκBα stabilization. The accumulation of IκBα then blocked NF-κB activation and inhibited its nuclear translocation, resulting in decreased expression of various proinflammatory cytokines. As expected, overexpression of F317L promoted ASFV replication, and knockdown of F317L expression suppressed ASFV replication. This also indicated the crucial role of NF-κB pathway signaling in suppression of ASFV replication. Truncation mutation analysis indicated that the region spanning amino acids 109 to 208 of F317L was critical for inhibition of NF-κB activity. This is the first report about the function of F317L protein of ASFV, which provides insights for investigation of ASFV immune evasion mechanisms and development of ASFV live-attenuated vaccine. IMPORTANCE African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most important pig diseases, causing a high case fatality rate and trade restrictions upon reported outbreaks. The limited understanding of the functions of the proteins of the causative agent, African swine fever virus (ASFV), has become a primary barrier to developing available commercial ASFV vaccines. ASFV infection causes severe immunosuppression. However, the mechanisms are still poorly understood. Identification of the viral factors responsible for causing immunosuppression will provide targets for developing ASFV live-attenuated vaccine through deletion of these viral factors. In this study, we determined that the uncharacterized protein F317L of ASFV had an antagonistic function against host innate immune response. Knockdown of F317L expression clearly inhibited ASFV replication. This is the first report about the function of F317L protein of ASFV, which provides new data to understand how ASFV inhibits host innate immune response and provides insights for developing ASFV live-attenuated vaccine.

Porcine Picornavirus 3C Protease Degrades PRDX6 to Impair PRDX6-mediated Antiviral Function.

Peroxiredoxin-6 (PRDX6) is an antioxidant enzyme with both the activities of peroxidase and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which is involved in regulation of many cellular reactions. However, the function of PRDX6 during virus infection remains unknown. In this study, we found that the abundance of PRDX6 protein was dramatically decreased in foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infected cells. Overexpression of PRDX6 inhibited FMDV replication. In contrast, knockdown of PRDX6 expression promoted FMDV replication, suggesting an antiviral role of PRDX6. To explore whether the activity of peroxidase and PLA2 was associated with PRDX6-mediated antiviral function, a specific inhibitor of PLA2 (MJ33) and a specific inhibitor of peroxidase activity (mercaptosuccinate) were used to treat the cells before FMDV infection. The results showed that incubation of MJ33 but not mercaptosuccinate promoted FMDV replication. Meanwhile, overexpression of PRDX6 slightly enhanced type I interferon signaling. We further determined that the viral 3Cpro was responsible for degradation of PRDX6, and 3Cpro-induced reduction of PRDX6 was independent of the proteasome, lysosome, and caspase pathways. The protease activity of 3Cpro was required for induction of PRDX6 reduction. Besides, PRDX6 suppressed the replication of another porcine picornavirus Senecavirus A (SVA), and the 3Cpro of SVA induced the reduction of PRDX6 through its proteolytic activity as well. Together, our results suggested that PRDX6 plays an important antiviral role during porcine picornavirus infection, and the viral 3Cpro induces the degradation of PRDX6 to overcome PRDX6-mediated antiviral function.

MicroRNA Expression Profile in Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes of Sheep Vaccinated with Nigeria 75/1 Peste Des Petits Ruminants Virus.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is one of the highly contagious transboundary viral diseases of small ruminants. Host microRNA (miRNA) expression patterns may change in response to virus infection, and it mainly works as a post-transcriptional moderator in gene expression and affects viral pathogenesis and replication. In this study, the change of miRNA expression profile in peripheral blood lymphocyte (PBMC) from sheep inoculated with PPR vaccine virus in vivo as well as primary sheep testicular (ST) cells inoculated with PPR vaccine virus in vitro were determined via deep sequencing technology. In PBMC cells, 373 and 115 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) were identified 3 days and 5 days post inoculated (dpi), respectively. While, 575 DEmiRNAs were identified when comparing miRNA profiles on 5 dpi with 3 dpi. Some of the DEmiRNAs were found to change significantly via time-course during PPR vaccine virus inoculated. Similarly, in ST cells, 136 DEmiRNAs were identified at 3 dpi in comparison with mock-inoculation. A total of 12 DEmiRNAs were validated by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). The oar-miR-150, oar-miR-370-3p and oar-miR-411b-3p were found common differentially expressed in both PPR vaccine virus-inoculated PBMC cells and ST cells. Targets prediction and functional analysis of the DEmiRNAs uncovered mainly gathering in antigen processing and presentation pathways, protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum pathways and cell adhesion molecules pathways. Our study supplies information about the DEmiRNAs in PPR vaccine virus-inoculated PBMC cells and ST cells, and provides clues for further understanding the function of miRNAs in PPR vaccine virus replication.