Lipid droplet dynamics are essential for the development of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are organelles central to lipid and energy homeostasis across all eukaryotes. In the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum the roles of LDs in lipid acquisition from its host cells and their metabolism are poorly understood, despite the high demand for lipids in parasite membrane synthesis. We systematically characterised LD size, composition and dynamics across the disease-causing blood infection. Applying split fluorescence emission analysis and 3D Focused Ion Beam-Scanning Electron Microscopy, we observed a decrease in LD size in late schizont stages. LD contraction likely signifies a switch from lipid accumulation to lipid utilisation in preparation for parasite egress from host red blood cells. We demonstrate connections between LDs and several parasite organelles, pointing to potential functional interactions. Chemical inhibition of triacylglyerol (TAG) synthesis or break-down revealed essential LD functions for schizogony and in counteracting lipid toxicity. The dynamics of lipid synthesis, storage and utilisation in P. falciparum LDs might provide a target for new anti-malarial intervention strategies.

An essential role for an Fe-S cluster protein in the cytochrome c oxidase complex of Toxoplasma parasites.

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) of apicomplexan parasites differs considerably from the ETC of the animals that these parasites infect, and is the target of numerous anti-parasitic drugs. The cytochrome c oxidase complex (Complex IV) of the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii ETC is more than twice the mass and contains subunits not found in human Complex IV, including a 13 kDa protein termed TgApiCox13. TgApiCox13 is homologous to a human iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster-containing protein called the mitochondrial inner NEET protein (HsMiNT) which is not a component of Complex IV in humans. Here, we establish that TgApiCox13 is a critical component of Complex IV in T. gondii, required for complex activity and stability. Furthermore, we demonstrate that TgApiCox13, like its human homolog, binds two Fe-S clusters. We show that the Fe-S clusters of TgApiCox13 are critical for ETC function, having an essential role in mediating Complex IV integrity. Our study provides the first functional characterisation of an Fe-S protein in Complex IV.

A screen of drug-like molecules identifies chemically diverse electron transport chain inhibitors in apicomplexan parasites.

Apicomplexans are widespread parasites of humans and other animals, and include the causative agents of malaria (Plasmodium species) and toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii). Existing anti-apicomplexan therapies are beset with issues around drug resistance and toxicity, and new treatment options are needed. The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is one of the few processes that has been validated as a drug target in apicomplexans. To identify new inhibitors of the apicomplexan ETC, we developed a Seahorse XFe96 flux analyzer approach to screen the 400 compounds contained within the Medicines for Malaria Venture 'Pathogen Box' for ETC inhibition. We identified six chemically diverse, on-target inhibitors of the ETC in T. gondii, at least four of which also target the ETC of Plasmodium falciparum. Two of the identified compounds (MMV024937 and MMV688853) represent novel ETC inhibitor chemotypes. MMV688853 belongs to a compound class, the aminopyrazole carboxamides, that were shown previously to target a kinase with a key role in parasite invasion of host cells. Our data therefore reveal that MMV688853 has dual targets in apicomplexans. We further developed our approach to pinpoint the molecular targets of these inhibitors, demonstrating that all target Complex III of the ETC, with MMV688853 targeting the ubiquinone reduction (Qi) site of the complex. Most of the compounds we identified remain effective inhibitors of parasites that are resistant to Complex III inhibitors that are in clinical use or development, indicating that they could be used in treating drug resistant parasites. In sum, we have developed a versatile, scalable approach to screen for compounds that target the ETC in apicomplexan parasites, and used this to identify and characterize novel inhibitors.

A novel heteromeric pantothenate kinase complex in apicomplexan parasites.

Coenzyme A is synthesised from pantothenate via five enzyme-mediated steps. The first step is catalysed by pantothenate kinase (PanK). All PanKs characterised to date form homodimers. Many organisms express multiple PanKs. In some cases, these PanKs are not functionally redundant, and some appear to be non-functional. Here, we investigate the PanKs in two pathogenic apicomplexan parasites, Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. Each of these organisms express two PanK homologues (PanK1 and PanK2). We demonstrate that PfPanK1 and PfPanK2 associate, forming a single, functional PanK complex that includes the multi-functional protein, Pf14-3-3I. Similarly, we demonstrate that TgPanK1 and TgPanK2 form a single complex that possesses PanK activity. Both TgPanK1 and TgPanK2 are essential for T. gondii proliferation, specifically due to their PanK activity. Our study constitutes the first examples of heteromeric PanK complexes in nature and provides an explanation for the presence of multiple PanKs within certain organisms.

Divergent features of the coenzyme Q:cytochrome c oxidoreductase complex in Toxoplasma gondii parasites.

The mitochondrion is critical for the survival of apicomplexan parasites. Several major anti-parasitic drugs, such as atovaquone and endochin-like quinolones, act through inhibition of the mitochondrial electron transport chain at the coenzyme Q:cytochrome c oxidoreductase complex (Complex III). Despite being an important drug target, the protein composition of Complex III of apicomplexan parasites has not been elucidated. Here, we undertake a mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis of Complex III in the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Along with canonical subunits that are conserved across eukaryotic evolution, we identify several novel or highly divergent Complex III components that are conserved within the apicomplexan lineage. We demonstrate that one such subunit, which we term TgQCR11, is critical for parasite proliferation, mitochondrial oxygen consumption and Complex III activity, and establish that loss of this protein leads to defects in Complex III integrity. We conclude that the protein composition of Complex III in apicomplexans differs from that of the mammalian hosts that these parasites infect.

Substrate-mediated regulation of the arginine transporter of Toxoplasma gondii.

Intracellular parasites, such as the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii, are adept at scavenging nutrients from their host. However, there is little understanding of how parasites sense and respond to the changing nutrient environments they encounter during an infection. TgApiAT1, a member of the apicomplexan ApiAT family of amino acid transporters, is the major uptake route for the essential amino acid L-arginine (Arg) in T. gondii. Here, we show that the abundance of TgApiAT1, and hence the rate of uptake of Arg, is regulated by the availability of Arg in the parasite's external environment, increasing in response to decreased [Arg]. Using a luciferase-based 'biosensor' strain of T. gondii, we demonstrate that the expression of TgApiAT1 varies between different organs within the host, indicating that parasites are able to modulate TgApiAT1-dependent uptake of Arg as they encounter different nutrient environments in vivo. Finally, we show that Arg-dependent regulation of TgApiAT1 expression is post-transcriptional, mediated by an upstream open reading frame (uORF) in the TgApiAT1 transcript, and we provide evidence that the peptide encoded by this uORF is critical for mediating regulation. Together, our data reveal the mechanism by which an apicomplexan parasite responds to changes in the availability of a key nutrient.

Coordinated action of multiple transporters in the acquisition of essential cationic amino acids by the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii.

Intracellular parasites of the phylum Apicomplexa are dependent on the scavenging of essential amino acids from their hosts. We previously identified a large family of apicomplexan-specific plasma membrane-localized amino acid transporters, the ApiATs, and showed that the Toxoplasma gondii transporter TgApiAT1 functions in the selective uptake of arginine. TgApiAT1 is essential for parasite virulence, but dispensable for parasite growth in medium containing high concentrations of arginine, indicating the presence of at least one other arginine transporter. Here we identify TgApiAT6-1 as the second arginine transporter. Using a combination of parasite assays and heterologous characterisation of TgApiAT6-1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes, we demonstrate that TgApiAT6-1 is a general cationic amino acid transporter that mediates both the high-affinity uptake of lysine and the low-affinity uptake of arginine. TgApiAT6-1 is the primary lysine transporter in the disease-causing tachyzoite stage of T. gondii and is essential for parasite proliferation. We demonstrate that the uptake of cationic amino acids by TgApiAT6-1 is 'trans-stimulated' by cationic and neutral amino acids and is likely promoted by an inwardly negative membrane potential. These findings demonstrate that T. gondii has evolved overlapping transport mechanisms for the uptake of essential cationic amino acids, and we draw together our findings into a comprehensive model that highlights the finely-tuned, regulated processes that mediate cationic amino acid scavenging by these intracellular parasites.

A key cytosolic iron-sulfur cluster synthesis protein localizes to the mitochondrion of Toxoplasma gondii.

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are prosthetic groups on proteins that function in a range of enzymatic and electron transfer reactions. Fe-S cluster synthesis is essential for the survival of all eukaryotes. Independent Fe-S cluster biosynthesis pathways occur in the mitochondrion, plastid, and cytosolic compartments of eukaryotic cells. Little is known about the cytosolic Fe-S cluster biosynthesis in apicomplexan parasites, the causative agents of diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis. NBP35 serves as a key scaffold protein on which cytosolic Fe-S clusters assemble, and has a cytosolic localization in most eukaryotes studied thus far. Unexpectedly, we found that the NBP35 homolog of the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii (TgNBP35) localizes to the outer mitochondrial membrane, with mitochondrial targeting mediated by an N-terminal transmembrane domain. We demonstrate that TgNBP35 is critical for parasite proliferation, but that, despite its mitochondrial localization, it is not required for Fe-S cluster synthesis in the mitochondrion. Instead, we establish that TgNBP35 is important for the biogenesis of cytosolic Fe-S proteins. Our data are consistent with TgNBP35 playing a central and specific role in cytosolic Fe-S cluster biosynthesis, and imply that the assembly of cytosolic Fe-S clusters occurs on the cytosolic face of the outer mitochondrial membrane in these parasites.

Characterization of the apicoplast-localized enzyme TgUroD in Toxoplasma gondii reveals a key role of the apicoplast in heme biosynthesis.

Apicomplexan parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii possess an unusual heme biosynthesis pathway whose enzymes localize to the mitochondrion, cytosol, or apicoplast, a nonphotosynthetic plastid present in most apicomplexans. To characterize the involvement of the apicoplast in the T. gondii heme biosynthesis pathway, we investigated the role of the apicoplast-localized enzyme uroporphyrinogen III decarboxylase (TgUroD). We found that TgUroD knockdown impaired parasite proliferation, decreased free heme levels in the parasite, and decreased the abundance of heme-containing c-type cytochrome proteins in the parasite mitochondrion. We validated the effects of heme loss on mitochondrial cytochromes by knocking down cytochrome c/c1 heme lyase 1 (TgCCHL1), a mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes the covalent attachment of heme to c-type cytochromes. TgCCHL1 depletion reduced parasite proliferation and decreased the abundance of c-type cytochromes. We further sought to characterize the overall importance of TgUroD and TgCCHL1 for both mitochondrial and general parasite metabolism. TgUroD depletion decreased cellular ATP levels, mitochondrial oxygen consumption, and extracellular acidification rates. By contrast, depletion of TgCCHL1 neither diminished ATP levels in the parasite nor impaired extracellular acidification rate, but resulted in specific defects in mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Together, our results indicate that the apicoplast has a key role in heme biology in T. gondii and is important for both mitochondrial and general parasite metabolism. Our study highlights the importance of heme and its synthesis in these parasites.

The tyrosine transporter of Toxoplasma gondii is a member of the newly defined apicomplexan amino acid transporter (ApiAT) family.

Apicomplexan parasites are auxotrophic for a range of amino acids which must be salvaged from their host cells, either through direct uptake or degradation of host proteins. Here, we describe a family of plasma membrane-localized amino acid transporters, termed the Apicomplexan Amino acid Transporters (ApiATs), that are ubiquitous in apicomplexan parasites. Functional characterization of the ApiATs of Toxoplasma gondii indicate that several of these transporters are important for intracellular growth of the tachyzoite stage of the parasite, which is responsible for acute infections. We demonstrate that the ApiAT protein TgApiAT5-3 is an exchanger for aromatic and large neutral amino acids, with particular importance for L-tyrosine scavenging and amino acid homeostasis, and that TgApiAT5-3 is critical for parasite virulence. Our data indicate that T. gondii expresses additional proteins involved in the uptake of aromatic amino acids, and we present a model for the uptake and homeostasis of these amino acids. Our findings identify a family of amino acid transporters in apicomplexans, and highlight the importance of amino acid scavenging for the biology of this important phylum of intracellular parasites.

Characterization of the ATP4 ion pump in Toxoplasma gondii.

The Plasmodium falciparum ATPase PfATP4 is the target of a diverse range of antimalarial compounds, including the clinical drug candidate cipargamin. PfATP4 was originally annotated as a Ca2+ transporter, but recent evidence suggests that it is a Na+ efflux pump, extruding Na+ in exchange for H+ Here we demonstrate that ATP4 proteins belong to a clade of P-type ATPases that are restricted to apicomplexans and their closest relatives. We employed a variety of genetic and physiological approaches to investigate the ATP4 protein of the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii, TgATP4. We show that TgATP4 is a plasma membrane protein. Knockdown of TgATP4 had no effect on resting pH or Ca2+ but rendered parasites unable to regulate their cytosolic Na+ concentration ([Na+]cyt). PfATP4 inhibitors caused an increase in [Na+]cyt and a cytosolic alkalinization in WT but not TgATP4 knockdown parasites. Parasites in which TgATP4 was knocked down or disrupted exhibited a growth defect, attributable to reduced viability of extracellular parasites. Parasites in which TgATP4 had been disrupted showed reduced virulence in mice. These results provide evidence for ATP4 proteins playing a key conserved role in Na+ regulation in apicomplexan parasites.

Calcium negatively regulates secretion from dense granules in Toxoplasma gondii.

Apicomplexan parasites including Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. manufacture a complex arsenal of secreted proteins used to interact with and manipulate their host environment. These proteins are organised into three principle exocytotic compartment types according to their functions: micronemes for extracellular attachment and motility, rhoptries for host cell penetration, and dense granules for subsequent manipulation of the host intracellular environment. The order and timing of these events during the parasite's invasion cycle dictates when exocytosis from each compartment occurs. Tight control of compartment secretion is, therefore, an integral part of apicomplexan biology. Control of microneme exocytosis is best understood, where cytosolic intermediate molecular messengers cGMP and Ca2+ act as positive signals. The mechanisms for controlling secretion from rhoptries and dense granules, however, are virtually unknown. Here, we present evidence that dense granule exocytosis is negatively regulated by cytosolic Ca2+ , and we show that this Ca2+ -mediated response is contingent on the function of calcium-dependent protein kinases TgCDPK1 and TgCDPK3. Reciprocal control of micronemes and dense granules provides an elegant solution to the mutually exclusive functions of these exocytotic compartments in parasite invasion cycles and further demonstrates the central role that Ca2+ signalling plays in the invasion biology of apicomplexan parasites.

Apicoplast-Localized Lysophosphatidic Acid Precursor Assembly Is Required for Bulk Phospholipid Synthesis in Toxoplasma gondii and Relies on an Algal/Plant-Like Glycerol 3-Phosphate Acyltransferase.

Most apicomplexan parasites possess a non-photosynthetic plastid (the apicoplast), which harbors enzymes for a number of metabolic pathways, including a prokaryotic type II fatty acid synthesis (FASII) pathway. In Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, the FASII pathway is essential for parasite growth and infectivity. However, little is known about the fate of fatty acids synthesized by FASII. In this study, we have investigated the function of a plant-like glycerol 3-phosphate acyltransferase (TgATS1) that localizes to the T. gondii apicoplast. Knock-down of TgATS1 resulted in significantly reduced incorporation of FASII-synthesized fatty acids into phosphatidic acid and downstream phospholipids and a severe defect in intracellular parasite replication and survival. Lipidomic analysis demonstrated that lipid precursors are made in, and exported from, the apicoplast for de novo biosynthesis of bulk phospholipids. This study reveals that the apicoplast-located FASII and ATS1, which are primarily used to generate plastid galactolipids in plants and algae, instead generate bulk phospholipids for membrane biogenesis in T. gondii.

The algal past and parasite present of the apicoplast.

Plasmodium and Toxoplasma are genera of apicomplexan parasites that infect millions of people each year. The former causes malaria, and the latter causes neurotropic infections associated with a weakened or developing immune system. These parasites harbor a peculiar organelle, the apicoplast. The apicoplast is the product of an ancient endosymbiosis between a heterotrophic and a photosynthetic protist. We explore the cellular and molecular mechanisms that enabled a stable union of two previously independent organisms. These include the exchange of metabolites, transfer of genes, transport of proteins, and overall coordination of biogenesis and proliferation. These mechanisms are still active today and can be exploited to treat parasite infection. They were shaped by the dramatic changes that occurred in the evolution of the phylum Apicomplexa--including the gain and loss of photosynthesis, adaptation to symbiosis and parasitism, and the explosion of animal diversity-that ultimately provided an aquatic alga access to every biotope on this planet.

Dynamics of T cell, antigen-presenting cell, and pathogen interactions during recall responses in the lymph node.

Memory T cells circulate through lymph nodes where they are poised to respond rapidly upon re-exposure to a pathogen; however, the dynamics of memory T cell, antigen-presenting cell, and pathogen interactions during recall responses are largely unknown. We used a mouse model of infection with the intracellular protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, in conjunction with two-photon microscopy, to address this question. After challenge, memory T cells migrated more rapidly than naive T cells, relocalized toward the subcapsular sinus (SCS) near invaded macrophages, and engaged in prolonged interactions with infected cells. Parasite invasion of T cells occurred by direct transfer of the parasite from the target cell into the T cell and corresponded to an antigen-specific increase in the rate of T cell invasion. Our results provide insight into cellular interactions during recall responses and suggest a mechanism of pathogen subversion of the immune response.

The Import of Proteins into the Mitochondrion of Toxoplasma gondii.

Outside of well characterized model eukaryotes, relatively little is known about the translocons that transport proteins across the two membranes that surround the mitochondrion. Apicomplexans are a phylum of intracellular parasites that cause major diseases in humans and animals and are evolutionarily distant from model eukaryotes such as yeast. Apicomplexans harbor a mitochondrion that is essential for parasite survival and is a validated drug target. Here, we demonstrate that the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii harbors homologues of proteins from all the major mitochondrial protein translocons present in yeast, suggesting these arose early in eukaryotic evolution. We demonstrate that a T. gondii homologue of Tom22 (TgTom22), a central component of the translocon of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM) complex, is essential for parasite survival, mitochondrial protein import, and assembly of the TOM complex. We also identify and characterize a T. gondii homologue of Tom7 (TgTom7) that is important for parasite survival and mitochondrial protein import. Contrary to the role of Tom7 in yeast, TgTom7 is important for TOM complex stability, suggesting the role of this protein has diverged during eukaryotic evolution. Together, our study identifies conserved and modified features of mitochondrial protein import in apicomplexan parasites.

Red cells from ferrochelatase-deficient erythropoietic protoporphyria patients are resistant to growth of malarial parasites.

Many red cell polymorphisms are a result of selective pressure by the malarial parasite. Here, we add another red cell disease to the panoply of erythrocytic changes that give rise to resistance to malaria. Erythrocytes from individuals with erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) have low levels of the final enzyme in the heme biosynthetic pathway, ferrochelatase. Cells from these patients are resistant to the growth of Plasmodium falciparum malarial parasites. This phenomenon is due to the absence of ferrochelatase and not an accumulation of substrate, as demonstrated by the normal growth of P falciparum parasites in the EPP phenocopy, X-linked dominant protoporphyria, which has elevated substrate, and normal ferrochelatase levels. This observation was replicated in a mouse strain with a hypomorphic mutation in the murine ferrochelatase gene. The parasite enzyme is not essential for parasite growth as Plasmodium berghei parasites carrying a complete deletion of the ferrochelatase gene grow normally in erythrocytes, which confirms previous studies. That ferrochelatase is essential to parasite growth was confirmed by showing that inhibition of ferrochelatase using the specific competitive inhibitor, N-methylprotoporphyrin, produced a potent growth inhibition effect against cultures of P falciparum. This raises the possibility of targeting human ferrochelatase in a host-directed antimalarial strategy.

Dynamics of neutrophil migration in lymph nodes during infection.

Although the signals that control neutrophil migration from the blood to sites of infection have been well characterized, little is known about their migration patterns within lymph nodes or the strategies that neutrophils use to find their local sites of action. To address these questions, we used two-photon scanning-laser microscopy to examine neutrophil migration in intact lymph nodes during infection with an intracellular parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. We found that neutrophils formed both small, transient and large, persistent swarms via a coordinated migration pattern. We provided evidence that cooperative action of neutrophils and parasite egress from host cells could trigger swarm formation. Neutrophil swarm formation coincided in space and time with the removal of macrophages that line the subcapsular sinus of the lymph node. Our data provide insights into the cellular mechanisms underlying neutrophil swarming and suggest new roles for neutrophils in shaping immune responses.

A serine-arginine-rich (SR) splicing factor modulates alternative splicing of over a thousand genes in Toxoplasma gondii.

Single genes are often subject to alternative splicing, which generates alternative mature mRNAs. This phenomenon is widespread in animals, and observed in over 90% of human genes. Recent data suggest it may also be common in Apicomplexa. These parasites have small genomes, and economy of DNA is evolutionarily favoured in this phylum. We investigated the mechanism of alternative splicing in Toxoplasma gondii, and have identified and localized TgSR3, a homologue of ASF/SF2 (alternative-splicing factor/splicing factor 2, a serine-arginine-rich, or SR protein) to a subnuclear compartment. In addition, we conditionally overexpressed this protein, which was deleterious to growth. qRT-PCR was used to confirm perturbation of splicing in a known alternatively-spliced gene. We performed high-throughput RNA-seq to determine the extent of splicing modulated by this protein. Current RNA-seq algorithms are poorly suited to compact parasite genomes, and hence we complemented existing tools by writing a new program, GeneGuillotine, that addresses this deficiency by segregating overlapping reads into distinct genes. In order to identify the extent of alternative splicing, we released another program, JunctionJuror, that detects changes in intron junctions. Using this program, we identified about 2000 genes that were constitutively alternatively spliced in T. gondii. Overexpressing the splice regulator TgSR3 perturbed alternative splicing in over 1000 genes.

The apical complex provides a regulated gateway for secretion of invasion factors in Toxoplasma.

The apical complex is the definitive cell structure of phylum Apicomplexa, and is the focus of the events of host cell penetration and the establishment of intracellular parasitism. Despite the importance of this structure, its molecular composition is relatively poorly known and few studies have experimentally tested its functions. We have characterized a novel Toxoplasma gondii protein, RNG2, that is located at the apical polar ring--the common structural element of apical complexes. During cell division, RNG2 is first recruited to centrosomes immediately after their duplication, confirming that assembly of the new apical complex commences as one of the earliest events of cell replication. RNG2 subsequently forms a ring, with the carboxy- and amino-termini anchored to the apical polar ring and mobile conoid, respectively, linking these two structures. Super-resolution microscopy resolves these two termini, and reveals that RNG2 orientation flips during invasion when the conoid is extruded. Inducible knockdown of RNG2 strongly inhibits host cell invasion. Consistent with this, secretion of micronemes is prevented in the absence of RNG2. This block, however, can be fully or partially overcome by exogenous stimulation of calcium or cGMP signaling pathways, respectively, implicating the apical complex directly in these signaling events. RNG2 demonstrates for the first time a role for the apical complex in controlling secretion of invasion factors in this important group of parasites.