Biomaterials-Mediated Engineering of the Immune System.

Modulation of the immune system is an important therapeutic strategy in a wide range of diseases, and is fundamental to the development of vaccines. However, optimally safe and effective immunotherapy requires precision in the delivery of stimulatory cues to the right cells at the right place and time, to avoid toxic overstimulation in healthy tissues or incorrect programming of the immune response. To this end, biomaterials are being developed to control the location, dose, and timing of vaccines and immunotherapies. Here we discuss fundamental concepts of how biomaterials are used to enhance immune modulation, and evidence from preclinical and clinical studies of how biomaterials-mediated immune engineering can impact the development of new therapeutics. We focus on immunological mechanisms of action and in vivo modulation of the immune system, and we also discuss challenges to be overcome to speed translation of these technologies to the clinic.

Cell maturation: Hallmarks, triggers, and manipulation.

How cells become specialized, or "mature," is important for cell and developmental biology. While maturity is usually deemed a terminal fate, it may be more helpful to consider maturation not as a switch but as a dynamic continuum of adaptive phenotypic states set by genetic and environment programing. The hallmarks of maturity comprise changes in anatomy (form, gene circuitry, and interconnectivity) and physiology (function, rhythms, and proliferation) that confer adaptive behavior. We discuss efforts to harness their chemical (nutrients, oxygen, and growth factors) and physical (mechanical, spatial, and electrical) triggers in vitro and in vivo and how maturation strategies may support disease research and regenerative medicine.

Structure of Microbial Nanowires Reveals Stacked Hemes that Transport Electrons over Micrometers.

Long-range (>10 µm) transport of electrons along networks of Geobacter sulfurreducens protein filaments, known as microbial nanowires, has been invoked to explain a wide range of globally important redox phenomena. These nanowires were previously thought to be type IV pili composed of PilA protein. Here, we report a 3.7 Å resolution cryoelectron microscopy structure, which surprisingly reveals that, rather than PilA, G. sulfurreducens nanowires are assembled by micrometer-long polymerization of the hexaheme cytochrome OmcS, with hemes packed within ∼3.5-6 Å of each other. The inter-subunit interfaces show unique structural elements such as inter-subunit parallel-stacked hemes and axial coordination of heme by histidines from neighboring subunits. Wild-type OmcS filaments show 100-fold greater conductivity than other filaments from a ΔomcS strain, highlighting the importance of OmcS to conductivity in these nanowires. This structure explains the remarkable capacity of soil bacteria to transport electrons to remote electron acceptors for respiration and energy sharing.

The Making of a Flight Feather: Bio-architectural Principles and Adaptation.

The evolution of flight in feathered dinosaurs and early birds over millions of years required flight feathers whose architecture features hierarchical branches. While barb-based feather forms were investigated, feather shafts and vanes are understudied. Here, we take a multi-disciplinary approach to study their molecular control and bio-architectural organizations. In rachidial ridges, epidermal progenitors generate cortex and medullary keratinocytes, guided by Bmp and transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß) signaling that convert rachides into adaptable bilayer composite beams. In barb ridges, epidermal progenitors generate cylindrical, plate-, or hooklet-shaped barbule cells that form fluffy branches or pennaceous vanes, mediated by asymmetric cell junction and keratin expression. Transcriptome analyses and functional studies show anterior-posterior Wnt2b signaling within the dermal papilla controls barbule cell fates with spatiotemporal collinearity. Quantitative bio-physical analyses of feathers from birds with different flight characteristics and feathers in Burmese amber reveal how multi-dimensional functionality can be achieved and may inspire future composite material designs. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Physiology, biomechanics, and biomimetics of hagfish slime.

Hagfishes thwart attacks by fish predators by producing liters of defensive slime. The slime is produced when slime gland exudate is released into the predator's mouth, where it deploys in a fraction of a second and clogs the gills. Slime exudate is composed mainly of secretory products from two cell types, gland mucous cells and gland thread cells, which produce the mucous and fibrous components of the slime, respectively. Here, we review what is known about the composition of the slime, morphology of the slime gland, and physiology of the cells that produce the slime. We also discuss several of the mechanisms involved in the deployment of both mucous and thread cells during the transition from thick glandular exudate to ultradilute material. We review biomechanical aspects of the slime, along with recent efforts to produce biomimetic slime thread analogs, and end with a discussion of how hagfish slime may have evolved.

Tyrosine - a structural glue for hierarchical protein assembly.

Protein self-assembly, guided by the interplay of sequence- and environment-dependent liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), constitutes a fundamental process in the assembly of numerous intrinsically disordered proteins. Heuristic examination of these proteins has underscored the role of tyrosine residues, evident in their conservation and pivotal involvement in initiating LLPS and subsequent liquid-solid phase transitions (LSPT). The development of tyrosine-templated constructs, designed to mimic their natural counterparts, emerges as a promising strategy for creating adaptive, self-assembling systems with diverse applications. This review explores the central role of tyrosine in orchestrating protein self-assembly, delving into key interactions and examining its potential in innovative applications, including responsive biomaterials and bioengineering.

The emergence of cancer sono-immunotherapy.

Owing to its remarkable ease of use, ultrasound has recently been explored for stimulating or amplifying immune responses during cancer therapy, termed 'sono-immunotherapy'. Ultrasound can cause immunogenic cell death in cancer cells via thermal and nonthermal effects to regulate the tumor microenvironment, thereby priming anticancer immunity; by integrating well-designed biomaterials, novel sono-immunotherapy approaches with augmented efficacy can also be developed. Here, we review the advances in sono-immunotherapy for cancer treatment and summarize existing limitations along with potential trends. We offer emerging insights into this realm, which might prompt breakthroughs and expand its potential applications to other diseases.

Instant tough adhesion of polymer networks.

Generating strong rapid adhesion between hydrogels has the potential to advance the capabilities of modern medicine and surgery. Current hydrogel adhesion technologies rely primarily on liquid-based diffusion mechanisms and the formation of covalent bonds, requiring prolonged time to generate adhesion. Here, we present a simple and versatile strategy using dry chitosan polymer films to generate instant adhesion between hydrogel-hydrogel and hydrogel-elastomer surfaces. Using this approach we can achieve extremely high adhesive energies (>3,000 J/m2), which are governed by pH change and non-covalent interactions including H-bonding, Van der Waals forces, and bridging polymer entanglement. Potential examples of biomedical applications are presented, including local tissue cooling, vascular sealing, prevention of surgical adhesions, and prevention of hydrogel dehydration. We expect these findings and the simplicity of this approach to have broad implications for adhesion strategies and hydrogel design.

Matrix stiffness-dependent regulation of immunomodulatory genes in human MSCs is associated with the lncRNA CYTOR.

Cell-matrix interactions in 3D environments significantly differ from those in 2D cultures. As such, mechanisms of mechanotransduction in 2D cultures are not necessarily applicable to cell-encapsulating hydrogels that resemble features of tissue architecture. Accordingly, the characterization of molecular pathways in 3D matrices is expected to uncover insights into how cells respond to their mechanical environment in physiological contexts, and potentially also inform hydrogel-based strategies in cell therapies. In this study, a bone marrow-mimetic hydrogel was employed to systematically investigate the stiffness-responsive transcriptome of mesenchymal stromal cells. High matrix rigidity impeded integrin-collagen adhesion, resulting in changes in cell morphology characterized by a contractile network of actin proximal to the cell membrane. This resulted in a suppression of extracellular matrix-regulatory genes involved in the remodeling of collagen fibrils, as well as the upregulation of secreted immunomodulatory factors. Moreover, an investigation of long noncoding RNAs revealed that the cytoskeleton regulator RNA (CYTOR) contributes to these 3D stiffness-driven changes in gene expression. Knockdown of CYTOR using antisense oligonucleotides enhanced the expression of numerous mechanoresponsive cytokines and chemokines to levels exceeding those achievable by modulating matrix stiffness alone. Taken together, our findings further our understanding of mechanisms of mechanotransduction that are distinct from canonical mechanotransductive pathways observed in 2D cultures.

A bioactive supramolecular and covalent polymer scaffold for cartilage repair in a sheep model.

Regeneration of hyaline cartilage in human-sized joints remains a clinical challenge, and it is a critical unmet need that would contribute to longer healthspans. Injectable scaffolds for cartilage repair that integrate both bioactivity and sufficiently robust physical properties to withstand joint stresses offer a promising strategy. We report here on a hybrid biomaterial that combines a bioactive peptide amphiphile supramolecular polymer that specifically binds the chondrogenic cytokine transforming growth factor ß-1 (TGFß-1) and crosslinked hyaluronic acid microgels that drive formation of filament bundles, a hierarchical motif common in natural musculoskeletal tissues. The scaffold is an injectable slurry that generates a porous rubbery material when exposed to calcium ions once placed in cartilage defects. The hybrid material was found to support in vitro chondrogenic differentiation of encapsulated stem cells in response to sustained delivery of TGFß-1. Using a sheep model, we implanted the scaffold in shallow osteochondral defects and found it can remain localized in mechanically active joints. Evaluation of resected joints showed significantly improved repair of hyaline cartilage in osteochondral defects injected with the scaffold relative to defects injected with the growth factor alone, including implantation in the load-bearing femoral condyle. These results demonstrate the potential of the hybrid biomimetic scaffold as a niche to favor cartilage repair in mechanically active joints using a clinically relevant large-animal model.

Bioprosthetic heart valve structural degeneration associated with metabolic syndrome: Mitigation with polyoxazoline modification.

Bioprosthetic heart valves (BHV), made from glutaraldehyde-fixed xenografts, are widely used for surgical and transcatheter valve interventions but suffer from limited durability due to structural valve degeneration (SVD). We focused on metabolic syndrome (MetS), a risk factor for SVD and a highly prevalent phenotype in patients affected by valvular heart disease with a well-recognized cluster of comorbidities. Multicenter patient data (N = 251) revealed that patients with MetS were at significantly higher risk of accelerated SVD and required BHV replacement sooner. Using a next-generation proteomics approach, we identified significantly differential proteomes from leaflets of explanted BHV from MetS and non-MetS patients (N = 24). Given the significance of protein infiltration in MetS-induced SVD, we then demonstrated the protective effects of polyoxazoline modification of BHV leaflets to mitigate MetS-induced BHV biomaterial degeneration (calcification, tissue cross-linking, and microstructural changes) in an ex vivo serum model and an in vivo with MetS rat subcutaneous implants.

Gas-modulating microcapsules for spatiotemporal control of hypoxia.

Oxygen is a vital molecule involved in regulating development, homeostasis, and disease. The oxygen levels in tissue vary from 1 to 14% with deviations from homeostasis impacting regulation of various physiological processes. In this work, we developed an approach to encapsulate enzymes at high loading capacity, which precisely controls the oxygen content in cell culture. Here, a single microcapsule is able to locally perturb the oxygen balance, and varying the concentration and distribution of matrix-embedded microcapsules provides spatiotemporal control. We demonstrate attenuation of hypoxia signaling in populations of stem cells, cancer cells, endothelial cells, cancer spheroids, and intestinal organoids. Varying capsule placement, media formulation, and timing of replenishment yields tunable oxygen gradients, with concurrent spatial growth and morphogenesis in a single well. Capsule containing hydrogel films applied to chick chorioallantoic membranes encourages neovascularization, providing scope for topical treatments or hydrogel wound dressings. This platform can be used in a variety of formats, including deposition in hydrogels, as granular solids for 3D bioprinting, and as injectable biomaterials. Overall, this platform's simplicity and flexibility will prove useful for fundamental studies of oxygen-mediated processes in virtually any in vitro or in vivo format, with scope for inclusion in biomedical materials for treating injury or disease.

Helminth egg derivatives as proregenerative immunotherapies.

The immune system is increasingly recognized as an important regulator of tissue repair. We developed a regenerative immunotherapy from the helminth Schistosoma mansoni soluble egg antigen (SEA) to stimulate production of interleukin (IL)-4 and other type 2-associated cytokines without negative infection-related sequelae. The regenerative SEA (rSEA) applied to a murine muscle injury induced accumulation of IL-4-expressing T helper cells, eosinophils, and regulatory T cells and decreased expression of IL-17A in gamma delta (γδ) T cells, resulting in improved repair and decreased fibrosis. Encapsulation and controlled release of rSEA in a hydrogel further enhanced type 2 immunity and larger volumes of tissue repair. The broad regenerative capacity of rSEA was validated in articular joint and corneal injury models. These results introduce a regenerative immunotherapy approach using natural helminth derivatives.

Optimal mechanical interactions direct multicellular network formation on elastic substrates.

Cells self-organize into functional, ordered structures during tissue morphogenesis, a process that is evocative of colloidal self-assembly into engineered soft materials. Understanding how intercellular mechanical interactions may drive the formation of ordered and functional multicellular structures is important in developmental biology and tissue engineering. Here, by combining an agent-based model for contractile cells on elastic substrates with endothelial cell culture experiments, we show that substrate deformation-mediated mechanical interactions between cells can cluster and align them into branched networks. Motivated by the structure and function of vasculogenic networks, we predict how measures of network connectivity like percolation probability and fractal dimension as well as local morphological features including junctions, branches, and rings depend on cell contractility and density and on substrate elastic properties including stiffness and compressibility. We predict and confirm with experiments that cell network formation is substrate stiffness dependent, being optimal at intermediate stiffness. We also show the agreement between experimental data and predicted cell cluster types by mapping a combined phase diagram in cell density substrate stiffness. Overall, we show that long-range, mechanical interactions provide an optimal and general strategy for multicellular self-organization, leading to more robust and efficient realizations of space-spanning networks than through just local intercellular interactions.

Synthetic fibrous hydrogels as a platform to decipher cell-matrix mechanical interactions.

Cells continuously sense external forces from their microenvironment, the extracellular matrix (ECM). In turn, they generate contractile forces, which stiffen and remodel this matrix. Although this bidirectional mechanical exchange is crucial for many cell functions, it remains poorly understood. Key challenges are that the majority of available matrices for such studies, either natural or synthetic, are difficult to control or lack biological relevance. Here, we use a synthetic, yet highly biomimetic hydrogel based on polyisocyanide (PIC) polymers to investigate the effects of the fibrous architecture and the nonlinear mechanics on cell-matrix interactions. Live-cell rheology was combined with advanced microscopy-based approaches to understand the mechanisms behind cell-induced matrix stiffening and plastic remodeling. We demonstrate how cell-mediated fiber remodeling and the propagation of fiber displacements are modulated by adjusting the biological and mechanical properties of this material. Moreover, we validate the biological relevance of our results by demonstrating that cellular tractions in PIC gels develop analogously to those in the natural ECM. This study highlights the potential of PIC gels to disentangle complex bidirectional cell-matrix interactions and to improve the design of materials for mechanobiology studies.

Harnessing Immunomodulatory Polymers for Treatment of Autoimmunity, Allergy, and Transplant Rejection.

Autoimmunity, allergy, and transplant rejection are a collection of chronic diseases that are currently incurable, drastically decrease patient quality of life, and consume considerable health care resources. Underlying each of these diseases is a dysregulated immune system that results in the mounting of an inflammatory response against self or an innocuous antigen. As a consequence, afflicted patients are required to adhere to lifelong regimens of multiple immunomodulatory drugs to control disease and reclaim agency. Unfortunately, current immunomodulatory drugs are associated with a myriad of side effects and adverse events, such as increased risk of cancer and increased risk of serious infection, which negatively impacts patient adherence rates and quality of life. The field of immunoengineering is a new discipline that aims to harness endogenous biological pathways to thwart disease and minimize side effects using novel biomaterial-based strategies. We highlight and discuss polymeric micro/nanoparticles with inherent immunomodulatory properties that are currently under investigation in biomaterial-based therapies for treatment of autoimmunity, allergy, and transplant rejection.

Promotion of trained innate immunity by nanoparticles.

The dogma that immunological memory is an exclusive trait of adaptive immunity has been recently challenged by studies showing that priming of innate cells can also result in modified long-term responsiveness to secondary stimuli, once the cells have returned to a non-activated state. This phenomenon is known as 'innate immune memory', 'trained immunity' or 'innate training'. While the main known triggers of trained immunity are microbial-derived molecules such as ß-glucan, endogenous particles such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein and monosodium urate crystals can also induce trained phenotypes in innate cells. Whether exogenous particles can induce trained immunity has been overlooked. Our exposure to particulates has dramatically increased in recent decades as a result of the broad medical use of particle-based drug carriers, theragnostics, adjuvants, prosthetics and an increase in environmental pollution. We recently showed that pristine graphene can induce trained immunity in macrophages, enhancing their inflammatory response to TLR agonists, proving that exogenous nanomaterials can affect the long-term response of innate cells. The consequences of trained immunity can be beneficial, for instance, enhancing protection against unrelated pathogens; however, they can also be deleterious if they enhance inflammatory disorders. Therefore, studying the ability of particulates and biomaterials to induce innate trained phenotypes in cells is warranted. Here we analyse the mechanisms whereby particles can induce trained immunity and discuss how physicochemical characteristics of particulates could influence the induction of innate memory. We review the implications of trained immunity in the context of particulate adjuvants, nanocarriers and nanovaccines and their potential applications in medicine. Finally, we reflect on the unanswered questions and the future of the field.