Effects of Race, Workplace Racism, and COVID Worry on the Emotional Well-Being of Hospital-Based Nurses: A Dual Pandemic.

Persons of color in the US experience the worst COVID-related outcomes and account for the majority of COVID-19 cases and hospitalizations among healthcare workers. In a pandemic where minority populations and healthcare workers are among the hardest hit, nurses of color are undoubtedly taxed. Moreover, their workplace racism experiences represent a dual pandemic in that the effects of COVID-19 worries and workplace racism may synergize to the detriment of their emotional well-being. The purpose of this study was to examine the direct, indirect, and interactive effects of individual (race, COVID worry), interpersonal (workplace racial microaggressions), and institutional (racial climate) factors on hospital-based nurses' emotional well-being. A sample of 788 registered nurses who worked in New Jersey hospitals completed an electronic survey. Compared to White nurses, nonwhite nurses reported higher emotional distress, more negative racial climates, more racial microaggressions, and higher levels of COVID worry. Nurses' worry about getting sick from COVID and multiple racial microaggression experiences had the largest effects on the likelihood of high emotional distress. Racism variables and worry about COVID mediated indirect effects of nonwhite race on emotional distress. Racial microaggressions mediated an indirect effect of racial climate on this outcome. Nurses who were worried about getting sick from COVID and experienced multiple microaggressions and/or the most negative racial climates had severe emotional distress. There is a need for sustained investment in a racially diverse nursing workforce. Mitigating workplace racism in hospitals is crucial, particularly during public health crises that disproportionately threaten minority populations and healthcare workers.

The moderating effect of COVID-19 stress on school racial climate and parent and child mental well-being.

The deleterious and racially disparate health outcomes of COVID-19 have been on full display since the pandemic began in the United States; however, less exploration has been dedicated to understanding short- and long-term mental health outcomes for U.S. parents and their children as a result of COVID's impact on schooling. This cross-sectional study examined U.S. parents perspectives on COVID-19 stress as a moderating influence on the relationship between perceptions of school racial climate (i.e., intergroup interactions and campus racial socialization) and parent and child mental health outcomes. Participants were recruited from Prolific's online survey platform and included a sample of 397 U.S. parents (52% female, average age 40, 74% White) with a child between the ages of 6 and 17, enrolled in a K-12 public school setting during the 2020-2021 academic year. The results revealed that COVID-19 stress moderated the relationship between parents' perceptions of campus racial socialization and parent mental well-being. Parents who reported either low, moderate, or high levels of COVID-19 stress had improved mental health when racial socialization in their child's school was high. This impact was greater for parents with high levels of COVID-19 stress than with low levels of COVID-19 stress. However, parents' perceptions of COVID-19 stress did not moderate the relationship between school racial climate factors and child behavioral and emotional problems. Findings have important implications which are discussed.

Relating through Oppression: Longitudinal Relations between Parental Racial Socialization, School Racial Climate, Oppressed Minority Ideology, and Empathy in Black Male Adolescents' Prosocial Development.

This research explored whether Black male adolescents' (N = 453; Mage  = 13.72, SD = 1.33) perceptions of parental racial socialization (i.e., behavioral racial socialization) and school racial climate (i.e., equitable school racial climate) were associated with prosocial outcomes (i.e., prosocial behaviors and positive relations with others) across three waves of adolescence. This study also explored whether youth's beliefs about the extent to which Black individuals and other marginalized communities are united by experiences of oppression (i.e., oppressed minority ideology) and empathy mediated these associations. Structural equation modeling indicated that parental behavioral racial socialization at Wave 1 and positive relations with others at Wave 3 were positively linked through youth's oppressed minority ideology and empathy at Wave 2. Thus, Black male adolescents who relate to other marginalized communities through a shared experience of oppression and feel empathy towards others' lives possess skills that translate their lessons about race and racism into positive relations with others.

Profiles of ethnic-racial socialization from family, school, neighborhood, and the Internet: Relations to adolescent outcomes.

Given that ecological models of development highlight the interacting influences of multiple environments, further research is needed that explores ethnic-racial socialization from multiple contexts. The current study explores how families, schools, neighborhoods, and the Internet jointly impact academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being in adolescents, both through socialization messages and experiences with racial discrimination. The research questions were: (a) What profiles of multiple contexts of socialization exist? and (b) How are the different profiles associated with academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being? The sample consisted of 1,084 U.S. adolescents aged 13-17 (M = 14.99, SD = 1.37; 49% girls) from four ethnic-racial groups: 25.6% Asian American, 26.3% Black/African American, 25.3% Latinx, and 22.9% White. The participants completed online surveys of socialization and discrimination from four contexts and three types of outcomes: academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and well-being. A latent profile analysis revealed three profiles: Average, High Discrimination, and Positive School. The Positive School class had the most positive academic outcomes and well-being. The High Discrimination class reported the highest critical consciousness. Their academic outcomes and well-being were similar to the Average group. The findings support complexity in perceptions of socialization from different contexts and the associations of socialization with youth outcomes.

Association Between Perceived Medical School Diversity Climate and Change in Depressive Symptoms Among Medical Students: A Report from the Medical Student CHANGE Study.

PURPOSE: To determine whether perceptions of the medical school diversity climate are associated with depression symptoms among medical students. METHODS: Longitudinal web-based survey conducted in the fall of 2010 and spring of 2014 administered to a national sample of medical students enrolled in 49 schools across the U.S. (n = 3756). Negative diversity climate measured by perceptions of the institution's racial climate; exposure to negative role modeling by medical educators; frequency of witnessing discrimination in medical school. Depression symptoms measured by the PROMIS Emotional Distress-Depression Short-Form. RESULTS: 64% of students reported a negative racial climate; 81% reported witnessing discrimination toward other students at least once, and 94% reported witnessing negative role modeling. Negative racial climate, witnessed discrimination, and negative role modeling were independently and significantly associated with an increase in depression symptoms between baseline and follow-up. Adjusting for students' personal experiences of mistreatment, associations between depressive symptoms and negative racial climate and negative role modeling, remained significant (.72 [.51-.93]; .33 [.12-.54], respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Among medical students, greater exposure to a negative medical school diversity climate was associated with an increase in self-reported depressive symptoms.

Perceptions matter: faculty caring, campus racial climate and academic performance.

AIM: Examine the influence of students' perception of faculty caring on academic performance and the moderating role of students' perceptions of campus racial climate. BACKGROUND: There is limited knowledge on how students' perceptions of faculty caring, campus racial climate and academic performance are linked. Understanding this nexus is crucial to improving nursing education. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of a cross-sectional data obtained from seven undergraduate nursing programs in Texas, USA. METHOD: Data were from 385 students enrolled in Medical-Surgical 1 over three semesters (March 2010-December 2010). Six sets of factor analytic scores derived from 31 original perceptions of faculty caring items served as predictors; one set of scores derived from seven original perceptions of campus racial climate items served as moderating variable in a regression model. Numeric grade was the outcome variable. RESULTS/FINDINGS: Perception of faculty having a positive outlook/compassion had an enhancing effect on performance. As students' perceptions of campus racial climate became increasingly discriminating, the positive association between perceptions of faculty's trust in students' judgment and academic performance became increasingly strong. CONCLUSION: Results highlight ways by which students' perception of micro-level social reality (dyadic interaction) might interact with their perception of meso-level social reality (social environment) to influence their academic performance.

Intersectionality and school racial climate to create schools as sites of fairness and liberation for Black girls.

Within this article, we utilize intersectionality theory as a framework for understanding the experiences of Black girls who attend PK-12 schools in the United States. Black girls' experiences are then illuminated within the context of the school racial climate research. We then add an intersectional lens to the school racial climate research to demonstrate how specific aspects of the school environment influence the experiences and perceptions of Black girls and their developmental outcomes. Finally, we conclude with recommendations for helping schools become fair and liberatory spaces that honor the full humanity of Black girls, their current schooling experiences, and their visions for their future selves.

Campus Racial Climate, Psychological Well-being, and Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Monoracial Black and Biracial Black Students Following Heightened Exposure to Police Brutality.

The spring of 2020 was characterized by highly visible acts of police brutality and a heightened attention to systemic racism that created a macro-stressor for Black-identifying individuals. The current study aimed to capture college students' perceptions of campus racial climate, subjective well-being, and race-based trauma symptoms during this time. Results indicated that racial identity was associated with students' mental well-being, perceptions of campus racial climate, and experiences of traumatic stress symptoms. Monoracial Black and biracial Black students differed from non-Black students in their perceptions of campus racial climate and their traumatic stress symptoms. Monoracial Black and biracial Black students differed from one another on reports of subjective well-being. A unique pattern of correlations among the study variables emerged for each group. Our findings document the race-based trauma symptoms experienced by monoracial Black and biracial Black students in the spring of 2020 and provide a foundation for future research to examine factors that uniquely contribute to the well-being of monoracial Black and biracial Black students.

Belonging Exacerbates the Relations Between Racial Climate Stress and Physiological Dysregulation.

OBJECTIVE: Belonging is often considered a buffer against the physical and emotional consequences of discrimination and racial climate stress Youth Soc. 48(5):649-72, 2016. However, recent research suggests that feelings of belonging toward an institution can be detrimental when an individual feels discriminated against by the same institution to which one feels a sense of connection J Behav Med. 44(4):571-8, 2021. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the moderating role of institutional belonging in the relationship between racial climate stress and health, as indexed by allostatic load (AL), a multi-system indicator of physiological dysregulation. METHODS: In a sample of Black and White college students (N = 150; White = 82; Black = 68), self-reported racial climate stress, institutional belonging, and various demographic variables were collected. An AL composite was also collected, comprised of six biological measures of the SAM system, HPA axis, cardiovascular system, and metabolic system. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the relationships between these variables. RESULTS: Results demonstrated no main effect of racial climate stress on AL but did show a significant interaction between racial climate stress and belonging, such that the positive relationship between racial climate stress and AL was significant only for those who also felt high levels of institutional belonging (ß int = .05, p = .006, 95% CI = 0.01 - 0.08). CONCLUSIONS: Feeling a sense of belonging may have negative physiological consequences for those who experience racial climate stress in a college setting.

#NotTheSame: Asian American subgroups moderate the relation between campus racial climate and perceived burdensomeness during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The present study examined the effect of campus racial climate on perceived burdensomeness, a suicide risk factor, among Asian American college students during the COVID-19 pandemic, when anti-Asian racism was present. To disaggregate these data, there was a test of whether Asian American ethnicity subgroup identification as Southeast and South or East Asian changed the association between campus racial climate on perceived burdensomeness. The current sample included 148 college students, 73 Southeast or South Asian Americans, and 75 East Asian American. The study participants were enrolled at a small liberal arts institution located in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Researchers collected data across 3 days (9-12 April 2020) via an online questionnaire. Both groups reported similar levels of campus racial climate and perceived burdensomeness. Bivariate correlations indicated that campus racial climate was positively correlated with perceived burdensomeness for Southeast and South Asians only. Moderation analyses revealed that a negative campus racial climate was related to greater perceived burdensomeness among Southeast and South Asian, but not East Asian, American students. This finding supports the need for disaggregation of Asian subgroups in mental health research to understand the diverse experiences within the Asian American community. Furthermore, there is a need for higher education institutions to consider tailoring interventions and tools that fit into the unique cultural and sociohistorical experiences of ethnic and racial subgroups among Asian American students.

The complexity of school racial climate: Reliability and validity of a new measure for secondary students.

BACKGROUND: The conceptualization of the role of race and culture in students' experience of school has been limited. This study presents a more comprehensive and multidimensional framework than previously conceptualized and includes the two domains of (1) intergroup interactions (frequency of interaction, quality of interaction, equal status, and support for positive interaction) and (2) school racial socialization (cultural socialization, mainstream socialization, promotion of cultural competence, colourblind socialization, critical consciousness socialization, and stereotyping) (Byrd, 2015, Journal of Educational Research, 108, 10). AIMS: The scale presents a measure of school racial climate for middle and high school students and tests for evidence of reliability and validity in two independent, nationwide samples. SAMPLE AND METHOD: Participants were 819 children aged 12-18 (M = 15.27, SD = 1.58) who completed the School Climate for Diversity - Secondary Scale and a number of validating measures: general school climate, perceived discrimination, culturally responsive teaching, grades, and academic motivation. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Confirmatory factor analyses and reliability analyses showed support for the 10-factor structure of the scale, and the subscales were associated with the validating measures in expected ways.