Role of taste receptors in salty taste perception of minerals and amino acids and developments in salt reduction strategies: A review.

Salt (sodium chloride) plays a key role in maintaining the textural, microbiological, and sensorial aspects of the foods. However high dietary salt intake in the population has led to a series of health problems. Currently manufacturers are under pressure to reduce the sodium levels in foods without compromising the consumer experience. Because of the clean salty taste produced by sodium chloride, it has been challenging for the food industry to develop a suitable salt substitute. Studies have shown that different components within a food matrix can influence the perception of saltiness. This review aims to comprehend the potential synergistic effect of compounds such as minerals and amino acids on the perception of saltiness and covers the mechanism of perception where relevant to taste resulting from sodium ions and other metallic ions (such as K, Mg, Ca), as well as various amino acids and their derivatives. Finally, the review summarizes various salt reduction strategies explored by researchers, government organizations and food industry, including the potential use of plant-based extracts.

Potassium-Based Sodium Substitutes Impact the Sodium and Potassium Content of Foods.

OBJECTIVE: Potassium-based sodium substitutes (PBSS) can be used to replace sodium during food processing. How potassium and sodium content is associated with PBSS is not known. The objectives of the study were to describe the prevalence of PBSS by sodium content claim category and describe how PBSS are associated with sodium and potassium concentrations by sodium level. DESIGN AND METHODS: This cross-sectional analysis used the July 2018 version of the United States Department of Agriculture's Branded Food Products Database. Products were divided into sodium content claim category and were analyzed for the presence of PBSS. Products with nonmissing values for sodium and potassium were grouped by sodium level and analyzed for the prevalence of PBSS to explore potassium and sodium concentration. Column proportion z-test with the Bonferroni correction was used to explore the occurrence of PBSS by sodium content claim category. Mann-Whitney U-test was used to assess differences in potassium and sodium concentrations across sodium levels and within levels by the presence/absence of PBSS. RESULTS: The prevalence of PBSS in the categories "without a sodium content claim" (2.4%), "lightly salted" (0.5%), and "unsalted" claims (0.6%) were statistically significantly lower than prevalence of PBSS in the "sodium free" (9.5%), "low sodium" (10.3%), and "reduced sodium" claim categories (23.3%; all P < .01). Among the group of products with serving sizes more than 30 g containing PBSS, there was a 357 mg per serving higher median sodium concentration and a 160 mg per serving higher median potassium concentration compared to the group without PBSS (both P < .01). CONCLUSION: In the "reduced sodium" claim category, a higher prevalence of PBSS was found compared to other sodium claim categories. The presence of PBSS was associated with higher potassium and sodium concentrations in foods.

Impaired Saltiness Perception Contributes to Higher Sodium Intake Among Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease: A Cross-Sectional Two-Center Study.

OBJECTIVE: Dietary sodium restriction is important in the prognosis of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The association between saltiness perception and sodium intake among CKD patients is unclear, and the factors that influence saltiness are also not fully understood. We evaluated saltiness perception in CKD patients employing a cost-effective saltiness perception test using sodium solutions and evaluated the association between saltiness perception, sodium intake, and the influencing factors. DESIGN AND METHODS: CKD outpatients not undergoing dialysis were enrolled from two medical centers and underwent saltiness perception tests together with 24-hour urine collections to measure daily sodium intake. Participants who perceived saltiness using the test solution containing 25 mM sodium were regarded to have "preserved" saltiness perception, while those unable to perceive saltiness were regarded as having "impaired" saltiness perception. RESULTS: Of the total 132 participants, the median daily sodium intake was 3.36 g (range; 0.51-9.95 g/day), and 43 (32.6%) were ex- or current smokers. When participants were divided into 3 groups (G) according to daily sodium intake level: low (G1; 0.51-2.61 g/day), middle (G2; 2.62-3.99 g/day), and high (G3; 4.06-9.95 g/day), there was an obvious difference in impaired saltiness perception between three groups: 6.8% in G1, 50.0% in G2 and 86.4% in G3 (P value = 8.035 × 10-14, Cochran-Armitage test). In a multiple regression analysis in which the saltiness perception was adopted as a subjective variable, smoking habit (ex- or current smoker) and nonadherence to dietary sodium restriction were identified as significant explanatory variables. CONCLUSION: We revealed the clear relationship between higher daily sodium intake and impaired saltiness perception that is related to nonadherence to dietary sodium restriction and smoking habit, both of which could be intervened by nutritional counseling and public health education.

Enhancing saltiness perception in bone broth: the additive effect of oil and optimization of sodium-reduction formula for consumer acceptability.

BACKGROUND: Excessive NaCl intake in liquid and semi-solid food (e.g. soup, hot pot base, sauce) poses a high risk to human health, and reducing NaCl intake is a major concern for global health. RESULTS: Using the generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) method, the study verified the possibility of sodium reduction through oil addition. The compromised acceptance threshold (CAT) and hedonic rejection threshold (HRT) were determined. The gLMS results showed that the saltiness intensity of samples containing 0.36% NaCl and 2.29% sunflower seed oil was significantly higher than that of samples containing only 0.36% NaCl (P < 0.05). CAT and HRT results indicated that by adding 3.59% sunflower oil, the NaCl content could be reduced to a minimum of 0.14% without causing sensory rejection in bone broth samples. The quantitative descriptive analysis method was used to determine the effects of NaCl and oil concentrations on the sensory attributes of bone broth samples. Furthermore, it was used to analyze the consumer acceptability drivers in combination with the hedonic scale to optimize the formulation of reduced-salt bone broth products. Notably, sample E (0.36% NaCl, 2.29% fat) not only had a significant salt reduction effect with a 20% decrease in NaCl, but also had improved overall acceptability. CONCLUSION: This study provides theoretical guidance for designing salt-reduction cuisine within the catering and food industries, including bone broth and hot pot bases. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Less sodium, more potassium, or both: population-wide strategies to prevent hypertension.

Hypertension is among the most prevalent medical conditions globally and a major contributor to chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and death. Prevention through nonpharmacological, population-level interventions is critically needed to halt this worldwide epidemic. However, there are ongoing disagreements as to where public policy efforts should focus. Recently the Salt Substitute and Stroke Study demonstrated the efficacy of substituting table salt with potassium salt to reduce the risk of stroke, major cardiovascular events, and death. However, this sparked debate over whether sodium or potassium should be prioritized in countries where table salt substitution was less feasible. In this commentary, we summarize arguments in favor of either strategy: reduced sodium or increased potassium intake. Moreover, we discuss evidence and policy approaches related to either or combined approaches relevant to cultural context. Ultimately, there is an urgent need for policies that both reduce sodium and increase potassium intake; however, identifying a strategy that fits cultural context will be key to improve population-wide blood pressures.

India's tryst with salt: Dandi march to low sodium salts.

Salt plays a critical role in India's past as well as its present, from Dandi March to its role as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification. However, excess salt intake is a risk factor for high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Indians consume double the World Health Organization recommended daily salt (<5 g). India has committed to a 30 per cent reduction in sodium intake by 2025. Evidence based strategies for population sodium intake reduction require a moderate reduction in salt in - home cooked foods, packaged foods and outside-home foods. Reducing the sodium content in packaged food includes policy driven interventions such as front-of-package warning labels, food reformulation, marketing restrictions and taxation on high sodium foods. For foods outside of the home, setting standards for foods purchased and served by schemes like mid-day meals can have a moderate impact. For home cooked foods (the major source of sodium), strategies include advocacy for reducing salt intake. In addition to mass media campaigns for awareness generation, substituting regular salt with low sodium salt (LSS) has the potential to reduce salt intake even in the absence of a major shift in consumer behaviour. LSS substitution effectively lowers blood pressure and thus reduces the risk of CVDs. Further research is required on the effect of LSS substitutes on patients with chronic kidney disease. India needs an integrated approach to sodium reduction that uses evidence based strategies and can be implemented sustainably at scale. This will be possible only through scientific research, governmental leadership and a responsive evidence-to-action approach through a multi-stakeholder coalition.

Modelling the impact of sodium intake on cardiovascular disease mortality in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) represent the main cause of death in Mexico, while high blood pressure is suffered by about half of the adult population. Sodium intake is one of the main risk factors for these diseases. The Mexican adult population consumes about 3.1 g/day, an amount that exceeds what is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) < 2 g sodium/day. The objective of this study was to estimate the impact of reducing sodium intake on CVD mortality in Mexico using a scenario simulation model. METHODS: The Integrated Model of Preventable Risk (PRIME) was used to estimate the number of deaths prevented or postponed (DPP) due to CVD in the Mexican adult population following the following sodium intake reduction scenarios: (a) according to the WHO recommendations; (b) an "optimistic" reduction of 30%; and (c) an "intermediate" reduction of 10%. RESULTS: The results show that a total of 27,700 CVD deaths could be prevented or postponed for scenario A, 13,900 deaths for scenario B, and 5,800 for scenario C. For all scenarios, the highest percentages of DPP by type of CVD are related to ischemic heart disease, hypertensive disease, and stroke. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that if Mexico considers implementing policies with greater impact to reduce sodium/salt consumption, a significant number of deaths from CVD could be prevented or postponed.

The use of high pressure processing to compensate for the effects of salt reduction in ready-to-eat meat products.

Sodium chloride is an essential ingredient in meat products, where it is not only used as a flavoring agent but also to achieve desired textural properties and as an antimicrobial to improve its safety and extend shelf-life. Although NaCl plays this multi-functional role in meat products, excessive sodium intake is linked to various negative health consequences such as cardiovascular disease and obesity. Sodium chloride added to ready-to-eat meat products is the largest contributor of sodium. Thus, there is an increased interest in the development of meat products with reduced sodium levels. Strategies to reduce sodium include identification of alternatives to sodium, considering safety and functionality, and including technological innovations and alternative food processing strategies. Several studies have shown that high pressure processing (HPP) can partially compensate for the loss in functional and sensory properties of meat products as a result of NaCl reduction. This review summarizes these studies to date and will highlight the ability of HPP to enhance the safety, shelf-life and quality of sodium-reduced meat products.

Healthy U.S.-style dietary patterns can be modified to provide increased energy from protein.

BACKGROUND: Dietary patterns developed by the USDA provide modest levels of protein (14-18% energy) within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) of 10-35% for adults, though diets providing a higher percentage of energy may be beneficial for some individuals. The purpose of this study was to determine if it is feasible to modify the Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern ("HEP") to provide a higher percentage of energy from protein. METHODS: Using the framework implemented by the USDA in developing the HEP, energy from protein was set at 20%, 25%, and 30%. Amounts of protein foods were proportionally increased while amounts of other foods were adjusted iteratively within specified parameters. The models also disaggregated total meat/poultry into fresh and processed forms to develop patterns maintaining current proportions, current levels, reduced, or no processed meat/poultry. Nutrient intakes were compared with nutrient goals for representative U.S. populations with 2,000 kcal needs (females 19-30 years, males 51-70 years), with 90% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance or Adequate Intake regarded as sufficient. RESULTS: Dietary patterns with 20% energy from protein were constructed with minor deviations from the current 2,000 kcal HEP. Dietary patterns with 25% energy from protein were constructed for all levels of processed meat/poultry excluding the current proportion model, though relative to the current HEP the constructed patterns reflect substantial reductions in amounts of refined grains and starchy vegetables, and substantial increases in protein foods consumed as beans and peas, seafood, and soy products. It was not possible to develop a pattern with 30% energy from protein without reducing the percentage of energy from carbohydrate below the AMDR or non-compliance with other modeling constraints. Stepwise reductions in processed meat/poultry reduced sodium intake. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to develop dietary patterns in a 2,000 kcal diet while mirroring the HEP that meet recommended intakes of nutrients with 20% or 25% energy from protein, though the pattern with 25% energy from protein may be more idealistic than realistic. Reduced levels of processed meat/poultry may translate to lower sodium intake.

Compendium of sodium reduction strategies in foods: A scoping review.

In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two-hundred and seventy-seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.

Estimating the health and economic effects of the voluntary sodium reduction targets in Brazil: microsimulation analysis.

BACKGROUND: Excessive sodium consumption is one of the leading dietary risk factors for non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), mediated by high blood pressure. Brazil has implemented voluntary sodium reduction targets with food industries since 2011. This study aimed to analyse the potential health and economic impact of these sodium reduction targets in Brazil from 2013 to 2032. METHODS: We developed a microsimulation of a close-to-reality synthetic population (IMPACTNCD-BR) to evaluate the potential health benefits of setting voluntary upper limits for sodium content as part of the Brazilian government strategy. The model estimates CVD deaths and cases prevented or postponed, and disease treatment costs. Model inputs were informed by the 2013 National Health Survey, the 2008-2009 Household Budget Survey, and high-quality meta-analyses, assuming that all individuals were exposed to the policy proportionally to their sodium intake from processed food. Costs included costs of the National Health System on CVD treatment and informal care costs. The primary outcome measures of the model are cardiovascular disease cases and deaths prevented or postponed over 20 years (2013-2032), stratified by age and sex. RESULTS: The study found that the application of the Brazilian voluntary sodium targets for packaged foods between 2013 and 2032 could prevent or postpone approximately 110,000 CVD cases (95% uncertainty intervals (UI): 28,000 to 260,000) among men and 70,000 cases among women (95% UI: 16,000 to 170,000), and also prevent or postpone approximately 2600 CVD deaths (95% UI: - 1000 to 11,000), 55% in men. The policy could also produce a net cost saving of approximately US$ 220 million (95% UI: US$ 54 to 520 million) in medical costs to the Brazilian National Health System for the treatment of CHD and stroke and save approximately US$ 71 million (95% UI: US$ 17 to170 million) in informal costs. CONCLUSION: Brazilian voluntary sodium targets could generate substantial health and economic impacts. The reduction in sodium intake that was likely achieved from the voluntary targets indicates that sodium reduction in Brazil must go further and faster to achieve the national and World Health Organization goals for sodium intake.

Regional Citrate Anticoagulation versus No-Anticoagulation for Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration in Acute Severe Hypernatremia Patients with Increased Bleeding Risk: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

PURPOSE: This study was aimed at evaluating the efficacy and safety of regional citrate anticoagulation (RCA) versus no-anticoagulation continuous venovenous hemofiltration (CVVH) in acute severe hypernatremia patients with increased bleeding risk. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Acute severe hypernatremia patients with high bleeding risk who underwent CVVH in our center between January 2011 and October 2017 were considered as candidates. Patients who were <18 years old, with hypovolemic hypernatremia, and had systemic anticoagulation were excluded. The included patients were divided into RCA and no-anticoagulation groups according to their anticoagulation strategy during CVVH and matched by age, sequential organ failure assessment scores, and vasopressor dependency. RESULTS: Of the 64 included patients, no-anticoagulation and RCA were employed for CVVH in 23 and 41 patients, respectively. The serum sodium reduction rate (RRSeNa) was not significantly different between the no-anticoagulation and RCA groups (p = 0.729). Compared to no-anticoagulation, RCA significantly prolonged the circuit survival time (15 h [4.1-23.9] vs. 51 h [21.3-80.7], p = 0.001). The incidence of filter failure was 65.2% (15/23) in the no-anticoagulation group and 2.4% (1/41) in the RCA group (p < 0.001), respectively. In the matched cohort, the RRSeNas were not different between the 2 groups (p = 0.569), and the filter lifespan was significantly longer in the RCA group as well (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: RCA might be safe and effective for acute severe hypernatremia patients who underwent CVVH treatment. Further prospective, randomized, control trials are warranted to obtain robust evidences.

The role of contextualisation in enhancing non-communicable disease programmes and policy implementation to achieve health for all.

The September 2019 United Nations' High-Level Meeting renewed political commitments to invest in universal health coverage by strengthening health systems, programmes and policies to achieve 'health for all'. This Political Declaration is relevant to addressing the increasing global burden of non-communicable diseases, but how can evidence-based programmes and policies be meaningfully implemented and integrated into local contexts? In this Commentary, we describe how the process of contextualisation and associated tools, such as ecological frameworks, implementation research frameworks, health system indicators, effective system strengthening strategies and evidence mapping databases with priority-setting, can enhance the implementation and integration of non-communicable disease prevention and control policies and programmes. Examples across health platforms include (1) population approaches to reducing excess sodium intake, (2) fixed-dose combination therapy for cardiovascular disease prevention and control, and (3) health systems strengthening for improving the quality and safety of cardiovascular care. Contextualisation is needed to transfer evidence into locally relevant and impactful policies and programmes. The systematic and comprehensive use of contextualisation tools leverages key implementation research principles to achieve 'health for all'.

FDA Sodium Reduction Targets and the Food Industry: Are There Incentives to Reformulate? Microsimulation Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

Policy Points The World Health Organization has recommended sodium reduction as a "best buy" to prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD). Despite this, Congress has temporarily blocked the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) from implementing voluntary industry targets for sodium reduction in processed foods, the implementation of which could cost the industry around $16 billion over 10 years. We modeled the health and economic impact of meeting the two-year and ten-year FDA targets, from the perspective of people working in the food system itself, over 20 years, from 2017 to 2036. Benefits of implementing the FDA voluntary sodium targets extend to food companies and food system workers, and the value of CVD-related health gains and cost savings are together greater than the government and industry costs of reformulation. CONTEXT: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set draft voluntary targets to reduce sodium levels in processed foods. We aimed to determine cost effectiveness of meeting these draft sodium targets, from the perspective of US food system workers. METHODS: We employed a microsimulation cost-effectiveness analysis using the US IMPACT Food Policy model with two scenarios: (1) short term, achieving two-year FDA reformulation targets only, and (2) long term, achieving 10-year FDA reformulation targets. We modeled four close-to-reality populations: food system "ever" workers; food system "current" workers in 2017; and subsets of processed food "ever" and "current" workers. Outcomes included cardiovascular disease cases prevented and postponed as well as incremental cost-effectiveness ratio per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained from 2017 to 2036. FINDINGS: Among food system ever workers, achieving long-term sodium reduction targets could produce 20-year health gains of approximately 180,000 QALYs (95% uncertainty interval [UI]: 150,000 to 209,000) and health cost savings of approximately $5.2 billion (95% UI: $3.5 billion to $8.3 billion), with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $62,000 (95% UI: $1,000 to $171,000) per QALY gained. For the subset of processed food industry workers, health gains would be approximately 32,000 QALYs (95% UI: 27,000 to 37,000); cost savings, $1.0 billion (95% UI: $0.7bn to $1.6bn); and ICER, $486,000 (95% UI: $148,000 to $1,094,000) per QALY gained. Because many health benefits may occur in individuals older than 65 or the uninsured, these health savings would be shared among individuals, industry, and government. CONCLUSIONS: The benefits of implementing the FDA voluntary sodium targets extend to food companies and food system workers, with the value of health gains and health care cost savings outweighing the costs of reformulation, although not for the processed food industry.

Current and future prospects for the use of pulsed electric field in the meat industry.

Pulsed electric field (PEF) is a novel non-thermal technology that has recently attracted the attention of meat scientists and technologists due to its ability to modify membrane structure and enhance mass transfer. Several studies have confirmed the potential of pulsed electric field for improving meat tenderness in both pre-rigor and post-rigor muscles during aging. However, there is a high degree of variability between studies and the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. While some studies have suggested physical disruption as the main cause of PEF induced tenderness, enzymatic nature of the tenderization seems to be the most plausible mechanism. Several studies have suggested the potential of PEF to mediate the tenderization process due to its membrane altering properties causing early release of calcium ions and early activation of the calpain proteases. However, experimental research is yet to confirm this postulation. Recent studies have also reported increased post-mortem proteolysis in PEF treated muscles during aging. PEF has also been reported to accelerate curing, enhance drying and reduce the numbers of both pathogens and spoilage organisms in meat, although that demands intense processing conditions. While tenderization, meat safety and accelerated curing appears to be the areas where PEF could provide attractive options in meat processing, further research is required before the application of PEF becomes a commercial reality in the meat industry. It needs to deal with carcasses which vary biochemically and in composition (muscle, fat, and bones). This review critically evaluates the published reports on the topic with the aim of reaching a clear understanding of the possible applications of PEF in the meat sector in addition to providing some insight on critical issues that need to be addressed for the technology to be a practical option for the meat industry.

Sodium, but not potassium, blocks bitterness in simple model chicken broths.

Potassium chloride (KCl) has proven useful as a salty taste replacer to help reduce dietary sodium. But unlike sodium, which in simple aqueous solutions blocks the perception of bitterness of selected compounds, KCl does not blocker bitterness. We tested the ability of potassium to block bitterness in a more complex translational system by presenting model chicken broths to healthy adults. Broths were presented in three added salt conditions: (1) no added salt, (2) salted with sodium chloride (NaCl), or (3) salted with KCl. To create a model bitter off-taste, four concentrations of l-tryptophan (l-tryp, present in chicken meat) were added to each broth. In Experiment 1, the base broth consisted of chicken flavor only. In Experiment 2, the base broth was more complex, containing savory (umami) ingredients. In both experiments, subjects rated broths with either added NaCl or KCl as saltier than unsalted broths. Only NaCl, however, suppressed bitterness (by about 30%, across a wide range of l-tryp concentrations). Accordingly, when complex foods have sodium reduced and potassium increased to balance salty taste, the bitterness reducing properties of sodium will need to be replaced independently, since potassium does not share this effect.

"The safety of sodium reduction in the food supply: A cross-discipline balancing act"-Workshop proceedings.

This workshop, jointly presented by the ILSI North America Technical Committees on Food Microbiology and Sodium, aimed to provide greater knowledge and appreciation of the opportunities and challenges facing the food industry in answering the public health community's call to reduce sodium levels in the food supply. One major challenge is finding effective substitutes for the various antimicrobial and functional roles that sodium plays across different food categories. Sodium plays a critical role in retarding the growth of pathogens and food spoilage bacteria. Moreover, taste is an important factor for consumers when they choose food products, and the flavor changes that occur when salt is reduced or replaced must be considered and ingredients and processes adjusted accordingly. The workshop provided a platform for a multidisciplinary discussion among the microbiology, food science, nutrition, and public health communities to share progress and propose solutions, including the formation of public-private partnerships, to develop coordinated and comprehensive strategies. This paper provides an overview of the issues raised, rather than a specific summary of workshop discussions. The Food and Drug Administration's Draft Guidance for Industry on voluntary sodium reduction and the 2015 US Dietary Guidelines for Americans were released subsequent to the workshop and are also discussed.

Differences in the sodium content of bread products in the USA and UK: implications for policy.

OBJECTIVE: Americans consume Na in excess of daily recommendations. Most dietary Na comes from packaged foods, and bread is a major contributor. In the UK, national Na reduction strategies contributed to lower Na levels in packaged foods and lower population Na intake. Similar initiatives are emerging in the USA and require surveillance to assess effectiveness. We aimed to examine Na levels in bread products in the USA and compare levels with similar UK products. DESIGN: Na data for bread products were obtained from the US Label Insight Open Data Initiative (n 4466) and the FoodSwitch UK database (n 1651). Mean, median and range of Na content, and proportion of products meeting Na targets established by the National Salt Reduction Initiative (NSRI) and the UK Department of Health (DH) were calculated overall, by bread type and by country. RESULTS: Mean (sd) Na content in bread was 455 (170) mg/100 g in the USA and 406 (179) mg/100 g in the UK. In both countries, savoury bread had the highest mean Na (USA=584 mg/100 g, UK=543 mg/100 g) and fruit bread the lowest mean Na (USA=345 mg/100 g, UK=277 mg/100 g). Na content of US bread products was 12 % higher than in the UK, with 21 % of US bread products and 31 % of UK bread products meeting the NSRI and DH targets, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: US bread products have, on average, 12 % more Na than similar products in the UK. Variation in Na content within product categories, and between countries, suggests the feasibility of manufacturing products with lower Na to lower dietary Na intake.

Development of a novel smoke-flavoured salmon product by sodium replacement using water vapour permeable bags.

BACKGROUND: Food manufacturers need to reduce sodium content to meet consumer and public health demands. In the present study, the use of sodium-free (SF) salt and KCl to develop a novel smoke-flavoured salmon product with reduced sodium content was evaluated. Fifty percent of NaCl was replaced with 50% of SF salt or 50% KCl in the salmon smoke-flavouring process, which was carried out using water vapour permeable bags. RESULTS: Triangle tests showed that samples with either SF salt or KCl were statistically similar to the control samples (100% NaCl). Because no sensorial advantage in using SF salt was found compared to KCl and given the lower price of KCl, the KCl-NaCl samples were selected for the next phase. The changes of physicochemical and microbial parameters in smoke-flavoured salmon during 42 days showed that partial replacement of NaCl with KCl did not significantly affect the quality and shelf-life of smoke-flavoured salmon, which was over 42 days. CONCLUSION: Smoke-flavoured salmon with 37% sodium reduction was developed without affecting the sensory features and shelf-life. This is an interesting option for reducing the sodium content in such products to help meet the needs set by both health authorities and consumers. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sodium Reduction in Bread: A Role for Glasswort (Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods).

Excessive dietary sodium (salt) intake is a primary cause of high blood pressure and, consequently, a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The World Health Organization wants to reduce the current sodium mean intake of approximately 4 g/d by half. Bread is commonly consumed and a major source of sodium. Therefore, reducing sodium content in bread would bring important economic and public health benefits. Thus, the goal of this paper is to provide an overview of the role of salt in bread manufacturing, summarize already tested reduction strategies, and explore glasswort (Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods) as a salt substitute. Some alternatives to the sodium additives often used in the bread-making process are also suggested. For this, an extensive literature review was carried out. Overall, salt reduction in bread, while maintaining product quality, is difficult to accomplish due to its multifunctional role in the bread-making process. Several strategies have been tried so far, with only partial success. Consequently, the use of glasswort (S. ramosissima J. Woods) as salt substitute shows great potential. However, other research is still needed to safely implement it in the baking industry. On the other hand, the reduction of salt alone is not the complete answer, and the replacement of sodium-based additives also needs to be considered to effectively lower sodium consumption.