Disposition of posaconazole after single oral administration in large falcons (Falco spp): Effect of meal and dosage and a non-compartmental model to predict effective dosage.

Posaconazole has been used anecdotally to treat aspergillosis in falcons resistant to voriconazole. In human medicine, it is used prophylactically in immunosuppressed human subjects with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. So far, no studies have been performed in birds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in-vivo pharmacokinetic behavior of oral posaconazole after a single administration in six large falcons (i.e gyrfalcons, saker falcons). Posaconazole oral suspension (Noxafil, 40 mg/ml, Schering-Plough) was administered per os without meal in a single dosage of 12.5 mg/kg in 3 falcons. A comparison was done in two more falcons, one with a natural fatty meal at the same single dose, and one with a natural fatty meal and a higher dosage (20 mg/kg). Finally, six falcons received posaconazole pre-dissolved in corn oil with a natural low-fat meal in the higher single dose (20 mg/kg). No side effects were observed in the falcons in any of the experiments. In starved state posaconazole was poorly absorbed, more so than in other species. As expected, absorption of posaconazole was higher with the administration of meal or in the presence of plant (corn) oil, with a fourfold increase in apparent bioavailability. Despite the preferential absorption in the presence of fat, for both dosing schemes the AUC24 : MIC ratio was lower than described in human medicine to achieve a therapeutic effect. The AUCinf : MIC which is an indicator of efficacy after steady-state, while variable, did indicate that the drug is worth trying when susceptibility testing shows to be the only effective drug. LAY ABSTRACT: The focus of this work is to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of oral posaconazole in large falcons for the first time after a single dose. Posaconazole has higher bioavailability when administered with meal and fatty components. No adverse reactions have been observed. The ratio of the area under the curve (AUC24) to minimum inhibitory concentration was lower compared to the therapeutic level in human.

Pharmacokinetics of voriconazole after a single intramuscular injection in large falcons (Falco spp.).

Voriconazole is one of the main azoles used to treat invasive aspergillosis in falconry raptors and birds. Despite the fact that there are studies for oral and intravenous use of voriconazole in birds, there are none for its effect after intramuscular use. Empirical use of intramuscular voriconazole in falcons, indicated quicker therapy response than the oral one. Aim of this study is to evaluate the in vivo pharmacokinetic disposition of injectable voriconazole after a single intramuscular injection in large falcons (i.e., Gyrfalcons, Saker falcons, Peregrine falcons). No clinical side effects were observed in the falcons. Absorption of voriconazole was rapid (0.5-2 hours) and reached a plasma level (>1 µg/ml) which is above the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for all known Aspergillus strains. This level was maintained for 16 to 20 hours, thus indicating that a single injection of 12.5 mg/kg is not enough if T > MIC is taken into consideration. On a newer aspect, according to the AUC24 unbound: MIC parameter would be indicated that this dose would be rather sufficient for most Aspergillus strains.

Mycoplasma hafezii sp. nov., isolated from the trachea of a peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus).

Mycoplasma species are well known pathogens in avian medicine, especially in poultry. However, several Mycoplasma species have been regularly found in the respiratory tract of birds of prey which seem to be commensals in these bird species. In previous studies, an unknown Mycoplasma species which caused false positive results in a Mycoplasma meleagridis-specific PCR, was isolated from a tracheal swab of a clinically healthy, captive, adult peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). The isolate appeared in typical fried-egg-shaped colonies on SP4 agar plates and was dependent on sterol for growth. Acid was produced from glucose, but no arginine or urea was hydrolysed. The temperature range for growth was 28-44 °C, with an optimum at 37 °C. Strain M26T was serologically distinct from all species of the genus Mycoplasma with 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity ≥94 %. Biochemical, serological and molecular biological properties demonstrate that this organism represents a novel species of the genus Mycoplasma, for which the name Mycoplasma hafezii sp. nov. is proposed; the type strain is M26T (NCTC 13928, DSM 27652).

Detection of MRSA of Lineages CC130-mecC and CC398-mecA and Staphylococcus delphini-lnu(A) in Magpies and Cinereous Vultures in Spain.

The aim of this study was to determine the carriage rate of coagulase-positive staphylococci (CoPS) in wild birds and to characterize recovered isolates. Tracheal samples from 324 wild birds, obtained in different Spanish regions during 2015-2016, were screened for CoPS carriage. The antimicrobial resistance profile and the virulence gene content were investigated. Molecular typing was performed by spa, agr, MLST, SCCmec, and S. delphini group classification. CoPS were recovered from 26 samples of wild birds (8.3%), and 27 isolates were further characterized. Two CoPS species were detected: S. aureus (n = 15; eight cinereous vultures and seven magpies) and S. delphini (n = 12; 11 cinereous vultures and one red kite). Thirteen S. aureus were methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and the remaining two strains were methicillin-susceptible (MSSA). Twelve MRSA were mecC-positive, typed as t843-ST1583/ST1945/ST1581/ST1571 (n = 11) and t1535-ST1945 (n = 1) (all of clonal-complex CC130); they were susceptible to the non-ß-lactams tested. The remaining MRSA strain carried the mecA gene, was typed as t011-ST398-CC398-agrI-SCCmec-V, and showed a multiresistance phenotype. MSSA isolates were ascribed to lineages ST97-CC97 and ST425-CC425. All S. aureus lacked the studied virulence genes (lukS/F-PV, tst, eta, etb, and etd), and the IEC type E (with scn and sak genes) was detected in four mecC-positive and one MSSA isolates. S. delphini strains were methicillin-susceptible but showed resistance to at least one of the antimicrobials tested, with high penicillin (75%, with blaZ gene) and tetracycline [58%, with tet(K)± tet(L)] resistance rates. All S. delphini isolates presented the virulence genes lukS-I, siet, and se-int, and four carried the clindamycin-resistance lnu(A) gene.

Hindgut Bacterial Flora Analysis in Oriental Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus).

The intestinal microbiome is known to affect host health through various effects on nutrition and immunity. The oriental honey buzzard (OHB) is a raptor that feeds on bees and wasps. Due to its restricted diet, we reasoned that the OHB may have a unique microbiome. The aim of this study was to characterize the structure of the intestinal flora of oriental honey buzzards and to investigate the difference of intestinal bacterial flora between individuals in the wild and those reared in captivity. We investigated the intestinal microbiome of seven wild buzzards (Wild), one zoo-reared (Zoo), and one individual reared in captivity for one month (Rearing). Average operational taxonomic units in Wild and Rearing were 69.4 and 113, respectively. Diversity indices such as ACE, Chao 1, Shannon, and Alpha were significantly lower in the Wild than in the Rearing samples. These results suggest that the variety of Wild microbiome is remarkably low. At the phylum level, the composition of the microbiome was similar in all three groups, with firmicutes and bacteroidetes predominating. The third most abundant bacterium in Wild was Proteobacteria, whereas it was Actinobacteria in Rearing and unclassified bacteria in Zoo. Thus, microbiome composition is affected even with just one month of human rearing.

Actinomyces tangfeifanii sp. nov., isolated from the vulture Aegypius monachus.

A novel, Gram-stain-positive, catalase-positive, non-spore-forming, short rod-shaped strain (VUL4_3T) was isolated from rectal swabs of Old World vultures (Aegypius monachus) from the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, China. Based on the results of biochemical tests and 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison, strain VUL4_3T was determined to be a member of the genus Actinomyces that is closely related to the type strains of Actinomyces liubingyangii (97.7 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity) and Actinomyces marimammalium (96.5 %). Optimal growth occurred at 37 °C, pH 6-7 and with 1 % (w/v) NaCl. The typical major cellular fatty acids of strain VUL4_3T were C18 : 1ω9c, C16 : 0 and C18 : 0. The VUL4_3T genome contained 2 207 832 bp with an average G+C content of 51.9 mol%. DNA-DNA hybridization values between strain VUL4_3T and the above two species of the genus Actinomyces showed less than 32 % DNA-DNA relatedness, supporting a novel species status of strain VUL4_3T. Based on the phenotypic data and phylogenetic inference, the novel species Actinomycestangfeifanii sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is VUL4_3T (=CGMCC 4.7369T=DSM 103436T).

Oceanisphaera avium sp. nov., isolated from the gut of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus.

A Gram-stain-negative, aerobic, catalase- and oxidase-positive, rod-shaped, flagellated bacterial strain, designated AMac2203T, was isolated from the gut of the cinereous vulture, Aegypiusmonachus, collected from the Seoul Grand Park Zoo, Republic of Korea. Strain AMac2203T grew optimally at 15-25 °C, pH 7-8 and in the presence of 3-5 % (w/v) NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis revealed 97.4-97.9 % and 96.9-97.3 % sequence similarities of the 16S rRNA genes to its counterparts in Oceanisphaera profunda SM1222T and Oceanisphaera ostreae T-w6T, respectively. The predominant fatty acids (>10 %) of strain AMac2203T were summed feature 3 (C16 : 0ω7c and/or C16 : 1ω6c, 33.6 %), summed feature 8 (C18 : 1ω7c, 24.5 %) and C16 : 0 (19.9 %). The primary isoprenoid quinone was ubiquinone-8. Polar lipids included phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol, an unidentified amino lipid and an unidentified lipid. Based on complete genome sequencing of strain AMac2203T and the closest related type strain, O. profunda, the OrthoANI value is 77.5 %, which is below the 95 % cut-off for species demarcation. The genomic DNA G+C content of strain AMac2203T is 47.1 mol%. Thus, strain AMac2203T represents a novel species candidate of the genus Oceanisphaera. We propose the name Oceanisphaeraavium sp. nov., with strain AMac2203T (=KCTC 62118T=JCM 32207T) as the type strain.

Tumebacillus avium sp. nov., isolated from the gut of a cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus.

A Gram-stain-positive, facultatively aerobic, spore-forming, oxidase-positive, catalase- and DNase-negative, rod-shaped and motile bacterial strain, AR23208T, was isolated from the gut of a cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus), collected at Seoul Grand Park Zoo (Republic of Korea). Strain AR23208T grew optimally at 25-30 °C, at pH 7 and in the absence of NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that strain AR23208T shared 98.2 and 97.1 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with Tumebacillus algifaecis THMBR28T and Tumebacilluslipolyticus NIO-S10T, respectively. The predominant fatty acids (>10 %) of strain AR23208T were iso-C15 : 0, summed feature 4 (anteiso-C17 : 1 B and/or iso-C17 : 1 I) and anteiso-C15 : 0 and the primary isoprenoid quinone was menaquinone-7. The polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylmonomethylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, six unidentified phospholipids, an unidentified aminophospholipid and ten unidentified lipids. The sugar components of the cell wall peptidoglycan were ribose and arabinose. The amino acids of the cell wall peptidoglycan were l-alanine, aspartic acid, meso-diaminopimelic acid, l-glutamic acid, glycine and l-lysine. The OrthoANI value based on the complete genome sequence of strain AR23208T and the closest related strain, T. algifaecis THMBR28T, was 80.4 %. The genomic DNA G+C content of strain AR23208T was 56.0 mol%. Based on the data presented in the current study, strain AR23208T is considered to represent a novel species of the genus Tumebacillus, for which the name Tumebacillus avium sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AR23208T (=KCTC 33929T=JCM 32188T).

[Tularemia in a jogger woman after the attack by a common buzzard (Buteo buteo): A "One Health" case report]. / Tularämie nach Angriff eines Mäusebussards auf eine Joggerin: Ein "One Health"-Fallbericht.

INTRODUCTION: A female jogger was attacked by a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and was scratched lightly at the back of the head. One week later she was taken ill with high fever and headache which was later diagnosed as ulcero-glandular tularemia in regional lymph nodes, caused by Francisella tularensis. Recovery was only achieved after several weeks of systemic antibiotic treatment (Gentamicin/ Ciprofloxacine). Tularemia is a well known zoonotic disease, called "rabbit fever", mainly affecting rabbits and hares, but also small rodents. Human infection occurs often following tick bites or bloodsucking insects, or in hunters or slaughterers handling infected animals. Bites by mice have also been reported as a cause of tularemia. For the first time we report this case of tularemia as a result of an attack by a bird of prey. We assume that the bird acted as a vector just carrying the F. tularensis on its claws or beak, but we cannot exclude an infection of the bird itself. Several other joggers had also been attacked by a common buzzard in the same area shortly after the above described event and one of these also became infected with F. tularensis.

Actinomyces liubingyangii sp. nov. isolated from the vulture Gypaetus barbatus.

Two strains (VUL4_1T and VUL4_2) of Gram-staining-positive, catalase-negative, non-spore-forming short rods were isolated from rectal swabs of Old World vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) in the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, China. Analysis of morphological characteristics and biochemical tests indicated that the two strains closely resembled each other but were distinct from other species of the genus Actinomyces previously described. Based on the results of 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison and genome analysis, strains were determined to be members of the genus Actinomyces, closely related to the type strains of Actinomyces marimammalium (96.4 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), Actinomyceshongkongensis (92.4 %), Actinomyceshordeovulneris (92.3 %) and Actinomycesnasicola (92.2 %), respectively. Optimal growth conditions were 37 °C, pH 6-7, with 1 % (w/v) NaCl. Strain VUL4_1T contained C18 : 1ω9c and C16 : 0 as the major cellular fatty acids and diphosphatidylglycerol as the major component of the polar lipids. The genomic DNA G+C content of VUL4_1T was 54.9 mol%. Strain VUL4_1T showed less than 70 % DNA-DNA relatedness with other species of the genus Actinomyces, further supporting strain VUL4_1T as a representative of a novel species. Based on the phenotypic data and phylogenetic inference, a novel species, Actinomyces liubingyangii sp. nov., is proposed with VUL4_1T (=CGMCC 4.7370T=DSM 104050T) as the type strain.

Actinomyces vulturis sp. nov., isolated from Gyps himalayensis.

Two strains of Gram-stain-positive, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming short rods (VUL7T and VUL8) were isolated from rectal swabs of Old World vultures, namely Gyps himalayensis, in Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, China. Optimal growth occurred at 37 °C, pH 6-7, with 1 % (w/v) NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences classified the two strains to the genus Actinomyces, with highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity (95 %) to type strains of Actinomyces haliotis, Actinomyces radicidentis and Actinomyces urogenitalis. The major cellular fatty acids were C18 : 1ω9c and C16 : 0. MK-10(H4) was the major respiratory quinone. The genomic DNA G+C content of the isolate was 54.4 mol%. DNA-DNA hybridization values with the most closely related species ofthe genusActinomyces was 24.6 %. The two strains can be differentiated from the most closely related species such as A. haliotis, A. radicidentis, A. graevenitzii and A. urogenitalis by a list of carbohydrate fermentations and enzyme activities. On the basis of physiological, biochemical and phylogenetic analysis, strains VUL7T and VUL8 represent novel species of the genus Actinomyces, for which the name Actinomyces vulturis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is VUL7T (=CGMCC 4.7366T=DSM 103437T).

Characterization of fecal vancomycin-resistant enterococci with acquired and intrinsic resistance mechanisms in wild animals, Spain.

The objectives were to evaluate the presence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci with acquired (VRE-a) and intrinsic (VRE-i) resistance mechanisms in fecal samples from different wild animals, and analyze their phenotypes and genotypes of antimicrobial resistance. A total of 348 cloacal/rectal samples from red-legged partridges (127), white storks (81), red kites (59), and wild boars (81) (June 2014/February 2015) were inoculated in Slanetz-Bartley agar supplemented with vancomycin (4 µg/mL). We investigated the susceptibility to 12 antimicrobials and the presence of 19 antimicrobial resistance and five virulence genes. In addition, we performed multilocus sequence typing, detection of IS16 and studied Tn1546 structure. One VRE-a isolate was identified in one wild boar. This isolate was identified as Enterococcus faecium, harbored vanA gene included into Tn1546 (truncated with IS1542/IS1216), and belonged to the new ST993. This isolate contained the erm(A), erm(B), tet(M), dfrG, and dfrK genes. Neither element IS16 nor the studied virulence genes were detected. Ninety-six VRE-i isolates were identified (89 Enterococcus gallinarum and seven Enterococcus casseliflavus), with the following prevalence: red kites (71.2 %), white storks (46.9 %), red-legged partridges (7.9 %), and wild boars (4.9 %). Most E. gallinarum isolates showed resistance to tetracycline (66.3 %) and/or erythromycin (46.1 %). High-level resistance to aminoglycosides was present among our VRE-i isolates: kanamycin (22.9 %), streptomycin (11.5 %), and gentamicin (9.4 %). In general, VRE-i isolates of red kites showed higher rates of resistance for non-glycopeptide agents than those of other animal species. The dissemination of acquired resistance mechanisms in natural environments could have implications in the global spread of resistance with public health implications.

Estimation of cultivable bacterial diversity in the cloacae and pharynx in Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus).

In this work, we describe the biodiversity of cloacal and pharynx culture-based bacteria (commensal and pathogenic), in 75 Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) from two geographic areas. We address the question of whether the cultivable microbiota of vultures is organised into assemblages occurring by chance. In addition, we assess bacterial diversity in both anatomic regions and geographic areas. Bacterial diversity was represented by 26 Gram-negative and 20 Gram-positive genera. The most common genera were Escherichia, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus, Clostridium and Lactococcus. Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis were the most common species in cloacal and pharyngeal samples. Staphylococcus and Erysipelothrix were isolated from the pharynx and Salmonella and Corynebacterium from the cloacae, and no Campylobacter was isolated from the cloacal swabs. Ten cloacal swabs were positive for Salmonella, of which five isolates were Salmonella enterica serotype 4,(5),12:i:-, one isolate was S. enterica serotype Derby, three isolates were S. enterica serotype 61:k:1,5,7 and one isolate was S. enterica serotype Infantis. The null modelling approach revealed that the commensal bacteria of vultures are not structured in assemblages. On the other hand, differences in bacterial genus and species richness between cloacal and pharyngeal samples or between geographic areas were clear, with the pharynx in vultures from both geographic areas being richer. The results of this study indicate also that vultures can serve as a reservoir of certain pathogenic zoonotic bacteria. The dissemination of these zoonotic pathogens in wildlife could be prevented by periodic sanitary surveys.

Clostridium vulturis sp. nov., isolated from the intestine of the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus).

A Gram-stain positive, strict anaerobe, spore-forming, motile rod-shaped bacterial strain with peritrichous flagella, designated YMB-57(T), was isolated from the intestine of a cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Korea. Strain YMB-57(T) was found to show optimal growth at 37 °C, pH 7.5 and 1.0 % (w/v) NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence showed that strain YMB-57(T) belongs to the genus Clostridium and is most closely related to the type strains of Clostridium subterminale (96.9 % sequence similarity), Clostridium thiosulfatireducens (96.7 %) and Clostridium sulfidigenes (96.6 %). The main fermentation end-products identified following growth in PYG medium were acetate, butyrate, ethanol, propanol, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Peptone was converted to ethanol, and butanol, whereas glucose was fermented to ethanol. The major cellular fatty acids were identified as C16:0, C18:1 ω9c, and C18:1 ω9c DMA and the DNA G+C content was determined to be 34.0 mol%. Phenotypic and phylogenetic differences indicate that strain YMB-57(T) is distinct from other Clostridium species. It is proposed that strain YMB-57(T) be classified as the type strain of a novel species of the genus Clostridium, with the name Clostridium vulturis sp. nov. The type strain is YMB-57(T) (=KCTC 15114(T) = JCM 17998(T)).

Enteric pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) feeding at the wildlife-livestock interface.

Free-flying turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) were sampled in California to investigate the fecal shedding prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp., and Escherichia coli. Nine different serotypes of Salmonella enterica were detected in cloacal swabs from turkey vultures, and 6% of vultures were shedding Campylobacter spp.. Turkey vultures sampled at a location with range sheep were more likely to shed tetracycline-resistant E. coli, suggesting that proximity to livestock facilities could facilitate acquisition of drug-resistant bacteria in avian scavengers. These findings illustrate the importance of assessing drug-resistant pathogen transfer at the livestock-wildlife interface.

A comparison of antibiotic resistance genes and mobile genetic elements in wild and captive Himalayan vultures.

As the most widely distributed scavenger birds on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Himalayan vultures (Gyps himalayensis) feed on the carcasses of various wild and domestic animals, facing the dual selection pressure of pathogens and antibiotics and are suitable biological sentinel species for monitoring antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study used metagenomic sequencing to comparatively investigate the ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) of wild and captive Himalayan vultures. Overall, the resistome of Himalayan vultures contained 414 ARG subtypes resistant to 20 ARG types, with abundances ranging from 0.01 to 1,493.60 ppm. The most abundant resistance type was beta-lactam (175 subtypes), followed by multidrug resistance genes with 68 subtypes. Decreases in the abundance of macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin (MLS) resistance genes were observed in the wild group compared with the zoo group. A total of 75 genera (five phyla) of bacteria were predicted to be the hosts of ARGs in Himalayan vultures, and the clinical (102 ARGs) and high-risk ARGs (35 Rank I and 56 Rank II ARGs) were also analyzed. Among these ARGs, twenty-two clinical ARGs, nine Rank I ARG subtypes, sixteen Rank II ARG subtypes were found to differ significantly between the two groups. Five types of MGEs (128 subtypes) were found in Himalayan vultures. Plasmids (62 subtypes) and transposases (44 subtypes) were found to be the main MGE types. Efflux pump and antibiotic deactivation were the main resistance mechanisms of ARGs in Himalayan vultures. Decreases in the abundance of cellular protection were identified in wild Himalayan vultures compared with the captive Himalayan vultures. Procrustes analysis and the co-occurrence networks analysis revealed different patterns of correlations among gut microbes, ARGs, and MGEs in wild and captive Himalayan vultures. This study is the first step in describing the characterization of the ARGs in the gut of Himalayan vultures and highlights the need to pay more attention to scavenging birds.

Caryospora cherrughi sp. n. (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) infecting Falco cherrug in Saudi Arabia.

The oocysts of Caryospora cherrughi sp. n. were described from the feces of the saker falcon, Falco cherrug, collected from the falcon market in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. The prevalence of infection was 21.4 % (15/70). The majority of the oocysts examined had completed sporulation within 64-84 h at 24 ± 2 °C. Sporulated oocysts are ovoid in shape, measuring 32.1 × 29.3 (30.7-34.5 × 27.7-29.8) µm; shape index (L/W) is 1.1 (1.04-1.27) µm. The oocyst wall is smooth and bilayered. Micropyle, polar granule, and oocyst residuum are absent. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal, measuring 24.1 × 19.6 (23.0-25.5 × 18.7-20.5) µm; with a smooth single-layered wall, but there is no Stieda body. The sporocyst residuum is present as numerous small granules. Sporozoites are banana-shaped, blunt at one end, and slightly tapered at the other, each with a large single refractile body. C. cherrughi sp. n. is the third caryosporian species described from F. cherrug.

Mycoplasma neophronis sp. nov., isolated from the upper respiratory tract of Canarian Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus majorensis).

Six strains with the typical characteristics of mycoplasmas were isolated from the tracheae of six Canarian Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus majorensis). The results of biochemical, serological and molecular genetic studies showed that the isolates were nearly identical and that they could be considered as representing a novel species of the genus Mycoplasma. Colonies possessed the typical fried-egg appearance and electron micrographs revealed a pleomorphic cellular morphology with the lack of a cell wall. The isolates hydrolysed arginine and required sterol for growth but did not ferment glucose or hydrolyse urea. We propose that the isolates be assigned to a novel species,Mycoplasma neophronis sp. nov. The type strain is G.A.(T) ( = DSM 24097(T) = ATCC BAA-2157(T)). The antiserum of strain G.A.(T) has been deposited in the Mollicutes collection at Purdue University (Indiana, USA).

First detection and genotyping of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in a new host species, gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus).

Recently, the pathogenic species of microsporidia of the genus Encephalitozoon have been detected increasingly, also in representatives of the Aves class. Our study presents laboratory proof of Encephalitozoon cuniculi (E. cuniculi) genotype II in a new host, gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), with suspect microsporidiosis. E. cuniculi is an obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite that infects a wide range of mammalian hosts, including humans. Characterization of the internal transcribed spacer of the rRNA gene has identified three genotypes of E. cuniculi based on the number of 5'-GTTT-3' repeats present: a genotype I from rabbits and mice, containing three repeats; a genotype II from mice and dogs, containing two repeats; and a genotype III from dogs and fox, containing four repeats. Samples of faeces from 30 gyrfalcons were examined for the presence of microsporidia spores, using microscopical, molecular methods and sequencing. Microscopic analysis showed presence of brightly fluorescing oval shapes of size 1.5 × 3 µm, characteristic of the strain Microsporidia in five samples. The PCR method, using species non-specific (530F/580R) and species-specific (ECUNR/ECUNF) primers, proved the presence of E. cuniculi spores in two samples. After sequencing were confirmed, E. cuniculi genotype II which implies new host species for this parasite.

MHC diversity and differential exposure to pathogens in kestrels (Aves: Falconidae).

Pathogen diversity is thought to drive major histocompatibility complex (MHC) polymorphism given that host's immune repertories are dependent on antigen recognition capabilities. Here, we surveyed an extensive community of pathogens (n = 35 taxa) and MHC diversity in mainland versus island subspecies of the Eurasian kestrel Falco tinnunculus and in a sympatric mainland population of the phylogenetically related lesser kestrel Falco naumanni. Insular subspecies are commonly exposed to impoverished pathogen communities whilst different species' ecologies and contrasting life-history traits may lead to different levels of pathogen exposure. Although specific host traits may explain differential particular infections, overall pathogen diversity, richness and prevalence were higher in the truly cosmopolitan, euriphagous and long-distance disperser Eurasian kestrel than in the estenophagous, steppe-specialist, philopatric but long-distance migratory lesser kestrel. Accordingly, the continental population of Eurasian kestrels displayed a higher number (64 vs. 49) as well as more divergent alleles at both MHC class I and class II loci. Detailed analyses of amino acid diversity revealed that significant differences between both species were exclusive to those functionally important codons comprising the antigen binding sites. The lowest pathogen burdens and the smallest but still quite divergent set of MHC alleles (n = 16) were found in island Eurasian kestrels, where the rates of allele fixation at MHC loci seem to have occurred faster than at neutral markers. The results presented in this study would therefore support the role of pathogen diversity and abundance in shaping patterns of genetic variation at evolutionary relevant MHC genes.