Direct Emulsification of Stable Superheated Perfluorobutane Nanodroplets by Sonication: Addressing the Limitations of the Microbubble Condensation Technique.

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: We have previously determined that direct formulation of a phospholipid-based perfluorobutane (PFB) emulsion using high-pressure homogenization produces monodispersed PFB nanodroplets (NDs) with relatively few non-PFB-filled NDs. In this article, we describe a simpler strategy to reproducibly formulate highly concentrated superheated PFB NDs using a probe sonicator, a more widely available tool. METHODS: Similar to the homogenization technique, sonicating at low power a solution of phospholipids with condensed PFB at -10°C consistently yields NDs with an encapsulation efficiency close to 100% and very few non-PFB-filled particles. RESULTS: The PFB emulsion is stable with absence of spontaneous vaporization at 37°C and for more than 14 d when frozen or refrigerated and for 3 d at 25°C. Acoustic droplet vaporization (ADV) occurred at a mechanical index >0.5 and continued to increase thereafter. The ADV threshold was similar for freshly made or frozen emulsion after thawing. In contrast to the microbubble (MB) condensation method, in which the ratio of non-PFB-filled to PFB-filled is 20001, particularly if MBs are not washed after formulation, nearly 94% of particles produced by direct sonication are PFB filled. CONCLUSION: PFB NDs can be manufactured with high yield, stability and reproducibility using a probe sonicator that is available in many laboratories. Their ease of manufacture could spark discoveries into highly impactful ND-based diagnostic and therapeutic applications.