Biocompatibility of Amine-Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles: The Role of Surface Coverage.

Here, amorphous silica nanoparticles (NPs), one of the most abundant nanomaterials, are used as an example to illustrate the utmost importance of surface coverage by functional groups which critically determines biocompatibility. Silica NPs are functionalized with increasing amounts of amino groups, and the number of surface exposed groups is quantified and characterized by detailed NMR and fluorescamine binding studies. Subsequent biocompatibility studies in the absence of serum demonstrate that, irrespective of surface modification, both plain and amine-modified silica NPs trigger cell death in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The in vitro results can be confirmed in vivo and are predictive for the inflammatory potential in murine lungs. In the presence of serum proteins, on the other hand, a replacement of only 10% of surface-active silanol groups by amines is sufficient to suppress cytotoxicity, emphasizing the relevance of exposure conditions. Mechanistic investigations identify a key role of lysosomal injury for cytotoxicity only in the presence, but not in the absence, of serum proteins. In conclusion, this work shows the critical need to rigorously characterize the surface coverage of NPs by their constituent functional groups, as well as the impact of serum, to reliably establish quantitative nanostructure activity relationships and develop safe nanomaterials.

c-Jun localizes to the nucleus independent of its phosphorylation by and interaction with JNK and vice versa promotes nuclear accumulation of JNK.

In order to activate gene expression, transcription factors such as c-Jun have to reside in the nucleus. The abundance of c-Jun in the nucleus correlates with the activity of its target genes. As a consequence of excessive c-Jun activation, cells undergo apoptosis or changes in differentiation whereas decreased c-Jun function can reduce proliferation. In the present study we addressed how nuclear accumulation of the transcription factor c-Jun is regulated. First, we analyzed which functions of c-Jun are required for efficient nuclear accumulation. Mutants of c-Jun deficient in dimerization or DNA-binding show no defect in nuclear transport. Furthermore, c-Jun import into the nucleus of living cells occurred when the c-Jun phosphorylation sites were mutated as well in cells that lack the major c-Jun kinase, JNK, suggesting that c-Jun transport into the nucleus does not require JNK signaling. Conversely, however, binding of c-Jun seemed to enhance nuclear accumulation of JNK. In order to identify proteins that might be relevant for the nuclear translocation of c-Jun we searched for novel binding partners by a proteomic approach. In addition to the heat shock protein HSP70 and the DNA damage repair factors Ku70 and 80, we isolated human importin 8 as a novel interactor of c-Jun. Interaction of Imp 8 with c-Jun in human cells was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Nuclear accumulation of c-Jun does not require its functions as a transcription factor or the interaction with its kinase JNK. Interestingly, nuclear accumulation of JNK is regulated by interaction with c-Jun. Unraveling the mechanisms of c-Jun and JNK transport to the nucleus and its regulation will improve our understanding of their role in biological and pathophysiological processes.

Uptake and intracellular localization of submicron and nano-sized SiO2 particles in HeLa cells.

Engineered amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiO(2)-NPs) are widely used in dyes, varnishes, plastics and glue, as well as in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and food. Novel composite SiO(2)-NPs are promising multifunctional devices and combine labels for subsequent tracking and are functionalized e.g. to specifically target cells to deliver their cargo. However, biological and potential toxic effects of SiO(2)-NPs are insufficiently understood. The aim of this study was to determine the uptake and fate of SiO(2)-NPs in mammalian cells. Also, silica submicron particles (SiO(2)-SMPs) were included in the studies in order to identify effects, which are only observed for nano-sized SiO(2) particles. Fluorescently labelled SiO(2)-NPs (nominal size 70 nm) and SiO(2)-SMPs (nominal size 200 and 500 nm) were used to examine cytotoxicity, cellular uptake and localization in human cervical carcinoma cells (HeLa). Particle uptake and intracellular localization in mitochondria, endosomes, lysosomes and nuclei were studied by wide field and confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy. Physicochemical characterization of SiO(2)-NPs by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering revealed a spherical morphology and a monodisperse size distribution. In the presence of serum, all SiO(2) particles are non-toxic. However, in the absence of serum SiO(2)-NPs but not SiO(2)-SMPs are highly toxic. SiO(2) particles, irrespective of size, were detected in the cytosol and accumulated in endosomal compartments of HeLa cells. No accumulation of SiO(2) particles in nuclei or mitochondria of HeLa cells could be observed. In contrast to SiO(2)-SMPs, SiO(2)-NPs are preferentially localized in lysosomes.

Silica Nanoparticles Provoke Cell Death Independent of p53 and BAX in Human Colon Cancer Cells.

Several in vitro studies have suggested that silica nanoparticles (NPs) might induce adverse effects in gut cells. Here, we used the human colon cancer epithelial cell line HCT116 to study the potential cytotoxic effects of ingested silica NPs in the presence or absence of serum. Furthermore, we evaluated different physico-chemical parameters important for the assessment of nanoparticle safety, including primary particle size (12, 70, 200, and 500 nm) and surface modification (-NH2 and -COOH). Silica NPs triggered cytotoxicity, as evidenced by reduced metabolism and enhanced membrane leakage. Automated microscopy revealed that the silica NPs promoted apoptosis and necrosis proportional to the administered specific surface area dose. Cytotoxicity of silica NPs was suppressed by increasing amount of serum and surface modification. Furthermore, inhibition of caspases partially prevented silica NP-induced cytotoxicity. In order to investigate the role of specific cell death pathways in more detail, we used isogenic derivatives of HCT116 cells which lack the pro-apoptotic proteins p53 or BAX. In contrast to the anticancer drug cisplatin, silica NPs induced cell death independent of the p53-BAX axis. In conclusion, silica NPs initiated cell death in colon cancer cells dependent on the specific surface area and presence of serum. Further studies in vivo are warranted to address potential cytotoxic actions in the gut epithelium. The unintended toxicity of silica NPs as observed here could also be beneficial. As loss of p53 in colon cancer cells contributes to resistance against anticancer drugs, and thus to reoccurrence of colon cancer, targeted delivery of silica NPs could be envisioned to also deplete p53 deficient tumor cells.

Autophagy induced by silica nanoparticles protects RAW264.7 macrophages from cell death.

Although the technological and economic benefits of engineered nanomaterials are obvious, concerns have been raised about adverse effects if such material is inhaled, ingested, applied to the skin or even released into the environment. Here we studied the cytotoxic effects of the most abundant nanomaterial, silica nanoparticles (SiO2-NPs), in murine RAW264.7 macrophages. SiO2-NPs dose-dependently induce membrane leakage and cell death without obvious involvement of reactive oxygen species. Interestingly, at low concentrations SiO2-NPs trigger autophagy, evidenced by morphological and biochemical hallmarks such as autophagolysosomes or increased levels of LC3-II, which serves to protect cells from cytotoxicity. Hence SiO2-NPs initiate an adaptive stress response which dependent on dose serve to balance survival and death and ultimately dictates the cellular fate.

Amorphous Silica Particles Relevant in Food Industry Influence Cellular Growth and Associated Signaling Pathways in Human Gastric Carcinoma Cells.

Nanostructured silica particles are commonly used in biomedical and biotechnical fields, as well as, in cosmetics and food industry. Thus, their environmental and health impacts are of great interest and effects after oral uptake are only rarely investigated. In the present study, the toxicological effects of commercially available nano-scaled silica with a nominal primary diameter of 12 nm were investigated on the human gastric carcinoma cell line GXF251L. Besides the analysis of cytotoxic and proliferative effects and the comparison with effects of particles with a nominal primary diameter of 200 nm, emphasis was also given to their influence on the cellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling pathways-both of them deeply involved in the regulation of cellular processes like cell cycle progression, differentiation or proliferation. The investigated silica nanoparticles (NPs) were found to stimulate cell proliferation as measured by microscopy and the sulforhodamine B assay. In accordance, the nuclear level of the proliferation marker Ki-67 was enhanced in a concentration-dependent manner. At high particle concentrations also necrosis was induced. Finally, silica NPs affected the EGFR and MAPK pathways at various levels dependent on concentration and time. However, classical activation of the EGFR, to be reflected by enhanced levels of phosphorylation, could be excluded as major trigger of the proliferative stimulus. After 45 min of incubation the level of phosphorylated EGFR did not increase, whereas enhanced levels of total EGFR protein were observed. These results indicate interference with the complex homeostasis of the EGFR protein, whereby up to 24 h no impact on the transcription level was detected. In addition, downstream on the level of the MAP kinases ERK1/2 short term incubation appeared to affect total protein levels without clear increase in phosphorylation. Depending on the concentration range, enhanced levels of ERK1/2 phosphorylation were only observed after 24 h of incubation. Taken together, the present study demonstrates the potential of the tested silica particles to enhance the growth of gastric carcinoma cells. Although interference with the EGFR/MAPK cascade is observed, additional mechanisms are likely to be involved in the onset of the proliferative stimulus.

Silica nanoparticles are less toxic to human lung cells when deposited at the air-liquid interface compared to conventional submerged exposure.

BACKGROUND: Investigations on adverse biological effects of nanoparticles (NPs) in the lung by in vitro studies are usually performed under submerged conditions where NPs are suspended in cell culture media. However, the behaviour of nanoparticles such as agglomeration and sedimentation in such complex suspensions is difficult to control and hence the deposited cellular dose often remains unknown. Moreover, the cellular responses to NPs under submerged culture conditions might differ from those observed at physiological settings at the air-liquid interface. RESULTS: In order to avoid problems because of an altered behaviour of the nanoparticles in cell culture medium and to mimic a more realistic situation relevant for inhalation, human A549 lung epithelial cells were exposed to aerosols at the air-liquid interphase (ALI) by using the ALI deposition apparatus (ALIDA). The application of an electrostatic field allowed for particle deposition efficiencies that were higher by a factor of more than 20 compared to the unmodified VITROCELL deposition system. We studied two different amorphous silica nanoparticles (particles produced by flame synthesis and particles produced in suspension by the Stöber method). Aerosols with well-defined particle sizes and concentrations were generated by using a commercial electrospray generator or an atomizer. Only the electrospray method allowed for the generation of an aerosol containing monodisperse NPs. However, the deposited mass and surface dose of the particles was too low to induce cellular responses. Therefore, we generated the aerosol with an atomizer which supplied agglomerates and thus allowed a particle deposition with a three orders of magnitude higher mass and of surface doses on lung cells that induced significant biological effects. The deposited dose was estimated and independently validated by measurements using either transmission electron microscopy or, in case of labelled NPs, by fluorescence analyses. Surprisingly, cells exposed at the ALI were less sensitive to silica NPs as evidenced by reduced cytotoxicity and inflammatory responses. CONCLUSION: Amorphous silica NPs induced qualitatively similar cellular responses under submerged conditions and at the ALI. However, submerged exposure to NPs triggers stronger effects at much lower cellular doses. Hence, more studies are warranted to decipher whether cells at the ALI are in general less vulnerable to NPs or specific NPs show different activities dependent on the exposure method.