On how much biodiversity is covered in Europe by national protected areas and by the Natura 2000 network: insights from terrestrial vertebrates.

The European Union has made extensive biodiversity conservation efforts with the Habitats and Birds Directives and with the establishment of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, one of the largest networks of conservation areas worldwide. We performed a gap analysis of the entire Natura 2000 system plus national protected areas and all terrestrial vertebrates (freshwater fish excluded). We also evaluated the level of connectivity of both systems, providing therefore a first estimate of the functionality of the Natura 2000 system as an effective network of protected areas. Together national protected areas and the Natura 2000 network covered more than one-third of the European Union. National protected areas did not offer protection to 13 total gap species (i.e., species not covered by any protected area) or to almost 300 partial gap species (i.e., species whose representation target is not met). Together the Natura 2000 network and national protected areas left 1 total gap species and 121 partial gap species unprotected. The terrestrial vertebrates listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives were relatively well covered (especially birds), and overall connectivity was improved considerably by Natura 2000 sites that act as stepping stones between national protected areas. Overall, we found that the Natura 2000 network represents at continental level an important network of protected areas that acts as a good complement to existing national protected areas. However, a number of problems remain that are mainly linked to the criteria used to list the species in the Habitats and Birds Directives. The European Commission initiated in 2014 a process aimed at assessing the importance of the Birds and Habitats Directives for biodiversity conservation. Our results contribute to this assessment and suggest the system is largely effective for terrestrial vertebrates but would benefit from further updating of the species lists and field management.

Cuánta Biodiversidad Europea es Tomada en Cuenta por las Áreas Protegidas Nacionales y cuánta por la Red Natura 2000: Percepciones de los Vertebrados Terrestres Resumen La Unión Europea ha hecho esfuerzos extensos de conservación de la biodiversidad con las Directivas de Hábitat y de Aves y con la creación de la red de áreas protegidas Natura 2000, una de las redes más grandes de áreas de conservación a nivel mundial. Realizamos un análisis de falta de datos en todo el sistema Natura 2000 más las áreas protegidas nacionales y todos los vertebrados terrestres (excluimos a los peces de agua dulce). También evaluamos el nivel de conectividad de ambos sistemas, proporcionando así un primer estimado de la funcionalidad del sistema Natura 2000 como una red efectiva de áreas protegidas. La red Natura 2000, junto con las áreas protegidas nacionales, cubrió más de un tercio de la Unión Europea. Las áreas protegidas nacionales no ofrecieron protección para un total de 13 especies del vacío (es decir, las especies que no abarcaron ninguna área protegida) o para casi 300 especies parciales del vacío (es decir, especies cuyo objetivo de representación no es alcanzado). La red Natura 2000, junto con las áreas protegidas nacionales, dejó un total de una especie del vacío y 121 especies parciales del vacío sin protección. Los vertebrados terrestres enlistados en las Directivas de Hábitat y de Aves fueron tomados en cuenta relativamente bien (especialmente las aves), y la conectividad general mejoró considerablemente por los sitios Natura 2000, los cuales funcionan como peldaño entre las áreas protegidas nacionales. En general, encontramos que la red Natura 2000 es, a nivel continental, una red importante de áreas protegidas que actúa como un buen complemento para las áreas protegidas nacionales existentes. Sin embargo, todavía permanece un número de problemas que están conectados principalmente con la lista de especies en las Directivas de Hábitat y de Aves. La Comisión Europea inició en 2014 un proceso enfocado a la importancia de estas directivas para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Nuestros resultados contribuyen a esta evaluación y sugieren que el sistema es generalmente efectivo para los vertebrados terrestres pero que se beneficiaría de una mayor actualización de las listas de especies y del manejo en el campo.

Are snake populations in widespread decline?

Long-term studies have revealed population declines in fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In birds, and particularly amphibians, these declines are a global phenomenon whose causes are often unclear. Among reptiles, snakes are top predators and therefore a decline in their numbers may have serious consequences for the functioning of many ecosystems. Our results show that, of 17 snake populations (eight species) from the UK, France, Italy, Nigeria and Australia, 11 have declined sharply over the same relatively short period of time with five remaining stable and one showing signs of a marginal increase. Although the causes of these declines are currently unknown, we suspect that they are multi-faceted (such as habitat quality deterioration, prey availability), and with a common cause, e.g. global climate change, at their root.

Effect of instructions and nicotine on smoking cessation, withdrawal symptoms and self-administration of nicotine gum.

Seventy-seven smokers quit smoking and were randomly assigned to a 3 x 2 design contrasting instructions (told received nicotine gum versus told received placebo gum versus not told which gum received) and receipt of nicotine (received nicotine gum versus received placebo gum). Both being told one received nicotine and actual receipt of nicotine increased the number of days abstinent and decreased the number of cigarettes smoked (P less than 0.05). Receipt of nicotine but not instructions appeared to influence withdrawal (P = 0.06). Instructions but not receipt of nicotine appeared to influence craving (P = 0.08), gum self-administration (P = 0.06) and reported helpfulness of the gum (P = 0.02). Neither nicotine nor instructions influenced side-effects. Instructions and nicotine interacted in several ways. For example, nicotine appeared to increase abstinence in the blind and told placebo conditions more than in the told nicotine condition (P less than 0.05). Our results suggest the effects of instructions and nicotine 1) are not mutually exclusive, 2) vary across dependent variables and 3) can interact such that instructions modify the therapeutic and subjective effects of nicotine.

Do volunteer subjects bias clinical trials?

The availability of volunteers for research on antidepressant medications raises questions about similarities between symptomatic volunteers and clinic patients. Volunteers accepted for a depression study and patients with major depressive disorder have been shown to have some similarities with regard to depressive symptoms and responses to treatment. However, it is unknown whether the population from which volunteers are drawn differs from the patient population in other ways that affect the generalizability of research findings. Respondents to newspaper advertisements for symptomatic volunteers and new clinic patients at a university-based, outpatient psychiatric facility received the Beck Depression Inventory, the Millon Behavioral Health Inventory and a questionnaire developed for the study. The first 30 respondents in each group with a Beck Depression Inventory score of at least 10 constituted the sample. No significant differences (p less than 0.05) between the groups were found on demographics, coping styles with help givers, perceptions of psychosocial stress, or overall depression severity. However, volunteers were sadder, more discouraged, and less interested in others than clinic patients. Symptomatic volunteers also more frequently reported financial concerns as an important factor in the decision about seeking help. However, they reported the desire to find effective treatment as the primary factor in the decision. Clinic patients, on the other hand, cited being referred as primary in the seeking help decision, with the desire for effective treatment being secondary. Results of this study suggest that volunteers for drug research are similar in important ways to persons who seek treatment for similar symptomatology. They also suggest that perception of need for treatment may be affected by the strength of specific depressive symptoms.

A survey of physician advice about caffeine.

Six hundred and ninety-seven medical specialists were surveyed to determine whether there is any consensus on the harmful effects of caffeine. More than 75% of the specialists recommended reduction in caffeine in patients with anxiety, arrhythmias, esophagitis/hiatal hernia, fibrocystic disease, insomnia, palpitations, and tachycardia.