The Legacy of Redlining: Increasing Childhood Asthma Disparities Through Neighborhood Poverty.

RATIONALE: Identifying the root causes of racial disparities in childhood asthma is critical for health equity. OBJECTIVES: To determine if the 1930's racist policy of redlining led to present-day disparities in childhood asthma by increasing community-level poverty and decreasing neighborhood socioeconomic position (SEP). METHODS: We categorized census tracts at birth of participants from the Children's Respiratory and Environmental Workgroup birth cohort consortium into A, B, C, or D categories as defined by the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), with D being the highest perceived risk. Surrogates of present-day neighborhood-level SEP were determined for each tract including the percentage of low-income households, the CDC's social vulnerability index (SVI), and other tract-level variables. We performed causal mediation analysis, which, under the assumption of no unmeasured confounding, estimates the direct and mediated pathways by which redlining may cause asthma disparities through census tract-level mediators adjusting for individual-level covariates. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Of 4,849 children, the cumulative incidence of asthma through age 11 was 26.6% and 13.2% resided in census tracts with a HOLC grade of D. In mediation analyses, residing in grade D tracts (aOR = 1.03 [95%CI 1.01,1.05]) was significantly associated with childhood asthma, with 79% of this increased risk mediated by percentage of low-income households; results were similar for SVI and other tract-level variables. CONCLUSIONS: The historical structural racist policy of redlining led to present-day asthma disparities in part through decreased neighborhood SEP. Policies aimed at reversing the effects of structural racism should be considered to create more just, equitable, and healthy communities.

Using environmental health dialogue in a Diné-centered approach for individualized results reporting in an environmental exposure study following the Gold King Mine Spill.

BACKGROUND: On August 5, 2015, the Gold King Mine Spill (GKMS) resulted in 3 million gallons of acid mine drainage spilling into the San Juan River impacting the Diné Bikeyah (traditional homelands of the Navajo people). The Gold King Mine Spill Diné Exposure Project was formed to understand the impacts of the GKMS on the Diné (Navajo). Reporting individualized household results in an exposure study is becoming more common; however, materials are often developed with limited community input with knowledge flowing in one direction - from researcher to participant. In this study we examined the development, dissemination, and evaluation of individualized results materials. METHODS: In August 2016, Navajo Nation Community Health Representatives (Navajo CHRs) sampled household water, dust, and soil, and resident blood and urine for lead and arsenic, respectively. From May-July 2017, iterative dialogue with a wide range of community partners and a community focus groups guided the development of a culturally-based dissemination process. In August 2017, Navajo CHRs reported individualized results and they surveyed the participants on the report-back process at that time. RESULTS: All of the 63 Diné adults (100%) who participated in the exposure study received their results by a CHR in person and 42 (67%) completed an evaluation. Most of those participants (83%) were satisfied with the result packets. Respondents ranked the individual and overall household results as the most important information they received (69% and 57%, respectively), while information on metals exposures and their health effects were the least helpful. CONCLUSIONS: Our project illustrates how a model of environmental health dialogue, defined by iterative, multidirectional communication among Indigenous community members, trusted Indigenous leaders, Indigenous researchers, non-Indigenous researchers, can improve reporting individualized study results. Findings can inform future research to encourage multi-directional environmental health dialogue to craft more culturally responsive and effective dissemination and communication materials.

Exposure frequency, intensity, and duration: What we know about work-related asthma risks for healthcare workers from cleaning and disinfection.

The objective of this review was to scope the current evidence base related to three exposure assessment concepts: frequency, intensity, and duration (latency) for cleaning and disinfection exposures in healthcare and subsequent work-related asthma risks. A search strategy was developed addressing intersections of four main concepts: (1) work-related asthma; (2) occupation (healthcare workers/nurses); (3) cleaning and disinfection; and (4) exposure. Three databases were searched: Embase, PubMed, and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) database. Data were extracted related to three main components of risk assessment: (1) exposure frequency, (2) exposure intensity, and (3) exposure duration. Latency data were analyzed using an exponential distribution fit, and extracted concentration data were compared to occupational exposure limits. The final number of included sources from which data were extracted was 133. Latency periods for occupational asthma were exponentially distributed, with a mean waiting time (1/λ) of 4.55 years. No extracted concentration data were above OELs except for some formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde concentrations. Data from included sources also indicated some evidence for a dose-response relationship regarding increased frequency yielding increased risk, but this relationship is unclear due to potential confounders (differences in role/task and associated exposure) and the healthy worker effect. Data priority needs to include linking concentration data to health outcomes, as most current literature does not include both types of measurements in a single study, leading to uncertainty in dose-response relationships.

Diné-centered Research Reframes the Gold King Mine Spill: Understanding Social and Spiritual Impacts Across Space and Time.

This paper explores how Indigenous-led research reframes the impacts and response to environmental disasters in the context of acid mine spills in rural communities of the Southwest United States. The collaborative research project addressing the Gold King Mine Spill (GKMS) designed qualitative methodologies that center Indigenous worldviews and contribute to broader understandings of environmental justice. The research team, led by Diné scholars and community leaders, gathered qualitative responses from 123 adult participants in twelve focus groups from three rural communities on the Navajo Nation. The project incorporated fluent Diné speakers and cultural consultants to lead focus groups in a manner consistent with cultural worldviews. The analysis of the focus group data resulted in original findings that reframe previous understandings of environmental harm by broadening the boundaries to include: 1) social relations across time; 2) social relations across space; 3) spiritual relations; and 4) restoring balance. The findings allow for greater insight into the colonial context of disaster on rural and Indigenous lands and confronts colonial-rooted disasters through Indigenous-informed political action.

Risk perceptions of drinking bottled vs. tap water in a low-income community on the US-Mexico Border.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that low-income Latinos generally drink bottled water over tap water and might be at increased risks for cavities from unfluoridated bottled water. In order to better design interventions, it is important to understand the risk perceptions of this unique high-risk yet historically marginalized group. METHODS: We interviewed low-income Latino households (n = 90) from Nogales, Arizona who primarily drink bottled water and asked them to evaluate potential health risks of drinking tap water compared to 16 other voluntary activities. Unpaired t-tests were used to determine if statistically significant (α = 0.05) differences occurred in perceived risk by drinking-water source and differences among demographic groups in their level of (dis)agreement with statements regarding tap or bottled water safety. To assess significant differences (α = 0.05) in perceived risks and voluntariness to engage in a number of activities, including drinking local tap water and drinking water in different geographic regions, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Scheffe's post-hoc test (a conservative post-hoc test) with adjustment for the number of pairwise comparisons was used. RESULTS: Participants viewed bottled water to be significantly safer to consume than tap water (p < 0.001). On a Likert scale from 1 (low risk) to 5 (high risk), "drinking tap water in Nogales, Arizona" received an average score of 4.7, which was significantly higher than the average perceived risk of drinking San Francisco, California tap water (µ = 3.4, p < 0.001), and as risky as drinking and driving (µ = 4.8, p = 1.00) and drinking Nogales, Sonora, Mexico tap water (µ = 4.8, p = 1.00). Ninety-eight percent of participants feared that drinking local tap water could result in illness, 79% did not drink their water because of fear of microbial and chemical contamination and 73% would drink their water if they knew it was safe regardless of taste. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that fear of illness from tap-water consumption is an important contributing factor to increased bottled water use. Future efforts should focus on the development of educational and outreach efforts to assess the safety and risks associated with tap-water consumption.

Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 Infection Risk Within the Google/Apple Exposure Notification Framework to Inform Quarantine Recommendations.

Most early Bluetooth-based exposure notification apps use three binary classifications to recommend quarantine following SARS-CoV-2 exposure: a window of infectiousness in the transmitter, ≥15 minutes duration, and Bluetooth attenuation below a threshold. However, Bluetooth attenuation is not a reliable measure of distance, and infection risk is not a binary function of distance, nor duration, nor timing. We model uncertainty in the shape and orientation of an exhaled virus-containing plume and in inhalation parameters, and measure uncertainty in distance as a function of Bluetooth attenuation. We calculate expected dose by combining this with estimated infectiousness based on timing relative to symptom onset. We calibrate an exponential dose-response curve based on infection probabilities of household contacts. The probability of current or future infectiousness, conditioned on how long postexposure an exposed individual has been symptom-free, decreases during quarantine, with shape determined by incubation periods, proportion of asymptomatic cases, and asymptomatic shedding durations. It can be adjusted for negative test results using Bayes' theorem. We capture a 10-fold range of risk using six infectiousness values, 11-fold range using three Bluetooth attenuation bins, ∼sixfold range from exposure duration given the 30 minute duration cap imposed by the Google/Apple v1.1, and ∼11-fold between the beginning and end of 14 day quarantine. Public health authorities can either set a threshold on initial infection risk to determine 14-day quarantine onset, or on the conditional probability of current and future infectiousness conditions to determine both quarantine and duration.

CC16 Levels into Adult Life Are Associated with Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure at Birth.

Rationale: Lung function and growth are adversely associated with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure. Lower levels of circulating club cell secretory protein (CC16) in childhood are also associated with subsequent decreased lung function. NO2 exposure may induce epithelial damage in lungs and alter club cell proliferation and morphology.Objectives: To determine if increased ambient NO2 levels at participants' home addresses in early life were associated with decreased levels of CC16 from age 6 to 32 years.Methods: Participants were enrolled at birth in the Tucson Children's Respiratory Study and had circulating CC16 measured at least once between age 6 and 32. Linear mixed models were used to determine the association between estimated ambient NO2 exposure at participants' home address at birth or age 6 with CC16 levels from age 6 to 32.Measurements and Main Results: NO2 exposures at birth or age 6 were available for 777 children with one or more CC16 measurement. We found a negative association between NO2 exposure and CC16 levels, with a 4.7% (95% confidence interval, -8.6 to -0.7) decrease in CC16 levels from age 6 to 32 per interquartile range increase in NO2 exposure (6.0 ppb) at the participants' birth address. We observed modification by race (p interaction = 0.04), with stronger associations among participants with at least one black parent (-29.6% [95% confidence interval, -42.9% to -13.2%] per interquartile range). NO2 at participant's age 6 address was not significantly associated with CC16 levels (-1.9%; 95% confidence interval, -6.3 to 2.6).Conclusions: Higher exposure to NO2 at birth is associated with persistently low levels of CC16 from 6 to 32 years.

Serum matrix metalloproteinase-9 in children exposed to arsenic from playground dust at elementary schools in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico.

Arsenic exposure in adults has been associated with increased serum matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), a biomarker which is associated with chronic respiratory disease, lung inflammation, cardiovascular disease and cancer. The objective of this study was to evaluate the association between serum MMP-9 levels in children, urinary arsenic, arsenic chronic daily intake (CDI) and arsenic exposure from playground dust. This cross-sectional study examined 127 children from five elementary schools, in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. Arsenic was analyzed in the dust using a portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer. Total urinary arsenic was determined by inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectrometry. Serum was analyzed for MMP-9 using ELISA. Arsenic levels in playground dust averaged 16.9 ± 4.6 mg/kg. Urinary arsenic averaged 34.9 ± 17.1 µg/L. Arsenic concentration in playground dust was positively associated with serum MMP-9 levels in crude analyses and after adjustment (P < 0.01), MMP-9 and CDI were positively associated only after adjustment (P < 0.01), and no association was found between MMP-9 and urinary arsenic. In conclusion, our study showed an association in children between serum MMP-9 levels and playground dust arsenic concentrations. Therefore, exposure to arsenic in dust where children spend significant time may manifest toxic effects.

Multimedia exposures to arsenic and lead for children near an inactive mine tailings and smelter site.

Children living near contaminated mining waste areas may have high exposures to metals from the environment. This study investigates whether exposure to arsenic and lead is higher in children in a community near a legacy mine and smelter site in Arizona compared to children in other parts of the United States and the relationship of that exposure to the site. Arsenic and lead were measured in residential soil, house dust, tap water, urine, and toenail samples from 70 children in 34 households up to 7 miles from the site. Soil and house dust were sieved, digested, and analyzed via ICP-MS. Tap water and urine were analyzed without digestion, while toenails were washed, digested and analyzed. Blood lead was analyzed by an independent, certified laboratory. Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated between each environmental media and urine and toenails for arsenic and lead. Geometric mean arsenic (standard deviation) concentrations for each matrix were: 22.1 (2.59) ppm and 12.4 (2.27)ppm for soil and house dust (<63µm), 5.71 (6.55)ppb for tap water, 14.0 (2.01)µg/L for specific gravity-corrected total urinary arsenic, 0.543 (3.22)ppm for toenails. Soil and vacuumed dust lead concentrations were 16.9 (2.03)ppm and 21.6 (1.90) ppm. The majority of blood lead levels were below the limit of quantification. Arsenic and lead concentrations in soil and house dust decreased with distance from the site. Concentrations in soil, house dust, tap water, along with floor dust loading were significantly associated with toenail and urinary arsenic but not lead. Mixed models showed that soil and tap water best predicted urinary arsenic. In our study, despite being present in mine tailings at similar levels, internal lead exposure was not high, but arsenic exposure was of concern, particularly from soil and tap water. Naturally occurring sources may be an additional important contributor to exposures in certain legacy mining areas.

Reporting back environmental exposure data and free choice learning.

Reporting data back to study participants is increasingly being integrated into exposure and biomonitoring studies. Informal science learning opportunities are valuable in environmental health literacy efforts and report back efforts are filling an important gap in these efforts. Using the University of Arizona's Metals Exposure Study in Homes, this commentary reflects on how community-engaged exposure assessment studies, partnered with data report back efforts are providing a new informal education setting and stimulating free-choice learning. Participants are capitalizing on participating in research and leveraging their research experience to meet personal and community environmental health literacy goals. Observations from report back activities conducted in a mining community support the idea that reporting back biomonitoring data reinforces free-choice learning and this activity can lead to improvements in environmental health literacy. By linking the field of informal science education to the environmental health literacy concepts, this commentary demonstrates how reporting data back to participants is tapping into what an individual is intrinsically motivated to learn and how these efforts are successfully responding to community-identified education and research needs.

Modeling of human viruses on hands and risk of infection in an office workplace using micro-activity data.

Although the number of illnesses resulting from indirect viral pathogen transmission could be substantial, it is difficult to estimate the relative risks because of the wide variation and uncertainty in human behavior, variable viral concentrations on fomites, and other exposure factors. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the micro-activity approach for assessment of microbial risk by adapting a mathematical model to estimate probability of viral infection from indirect transmission. To evaluate the model, measurements of phage loading on fomites and hands collected before and after implementation of a Healthy Workplace Project intervention were used. Parameter distributions were developed from these data, as well as for micro-activity rates, contact surface areas, phage transfer efficiencies, and inactivation rates. Following the Monte Carlo simulations (n = 1,000), the estimated phage loading on hands was not significantly different from the loading of phage on hands measured in the experimental trials. The model was then used to demonstrate that the Healthy Workplace Project intervention significantly reduced risk of infection by 77% for rotavirus and rhinovirus. This is the first published study to successfully evaluate a model focused on the indirect transmission of viruses via hand contact with measured data and provide an assessment of the micro-activity approach to microbial risk evaluation.

Recruitment strategies in marginalized industries for occupational health research: an example in a pilot study of cleaning staff during COVID-19.

This commentary describes challenges in recruiting workers from marginalized industries with examples from a pilot study of janitors, custodians, and maids and their experiences of cleaning and disinfection protocols during COVID-19 and potentially associated respiratory symptoms. Recruitment strategies included contacting a local hospital, national workers' unions, and a large Arizona employer; using online Facebook groups; and contacting Arizona maid service companies and a school district. English and Spanish online and hard copy surveys about cleaning protocols and respiratory symptoms were used. Participants could also participate in online/phone interviews. Worker's compensation, liability, and confidentiality were concerns across organizations. Online surveys yielded unreliable data. Hard copy surveys were used due to workers' limited technology access. We reflect upon these challenges and discuss other strategies for recruiting from marginalized populations for occupational health research. Building trust with organizations and workers and considering technology access may ultimately increase recruitment feasibility.

Comparison of Serum Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Concentrations in Incumbent and Recruit Firefighters and Longitudinal Assessment in Recruits.

OBJECTIVE: Firefighters are occupationally exposed to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). This study objective was to compare serum PFAS concentrations in incumbent and recruit firefighters and evaluate temporal trends among recruits. METHODS: Serum PFAS concentrations were measured in 99 incumbent and 55 recruit firefighters at enrollment in 2015-2016, with follow-up 20 to 37 months later for recruits. Linear and logistic regression and linear mixed-effects models were used for analyses. Fireground exposure impact on PFAS concentrations was investigated using adjusted linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Incumbents had lower n-PFOA and PFNA than recruits and most PFAS significantly decreased over time among male recruits. No significant links were found between cumulative fireground exposures and PFAS concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Serum PFAS concentrations were not increased in incumbent firefighters compared with recruits and were not associated with cumulative fireground exposures.

Environmental and structural factors associated with bacterial diversity in household dust across the Arizona-Sonora border.

We previously reported that asthma prevalence was higher in the United States (US) compared to Mexico (MX) (25.8% vs. 8.4%). This investigation assessed differences in microbial dust composition in relation to demographic and housing characteristics on both sides of the US-MX Border. Forty homes were recruited in the US and MX. Home visits collected floor dust and documented occupants' demographics, asthma prevalence, housing structure, and use characteristics. US households were more likely to have inhabitants who reported asthma when compared with MX households (30% vs. 5%) and had significantly different flooring types. The percentage of households on paved roads, with flushing toilets, with piped water and with air conditioning was higher in the US, while dust load was higher in MX. Significant differences exist between countries in the microbial composition of the floor dust. Dust from Mexican homes was enriched with Alishewanella, Paracoccus, Rheinheimera genera and Intrasporangiaceae family. A predictive metagenomics analysis identified 68 significantly differentially abundant functional pathways between US and MX. This study documented multiple structural, environmental, and demographic differences between homes in the US and MX that may contribute to significantly different microbial composition of dust observed in these two countries.

Early-Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Childhood Asthma Cumulative Incidence in the ECHO CREW Consortium.

Importance: Exposure to outdoor air pollution contributes to childhood asthma development, but many studies lack the geographic, racial and ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity to evaluate susceptibility by individual-level and community-level contextual factors. Objective: To examine early life exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen oxide (NO2) air pollution and asthma risk by early and middle childhood, and whether individual and community-level characteristics modify associations between air pollution exposure and asthma. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study included children enrolled in cohorts participating in the Children's Respiratory and Environmental Workgroup consortium. The birth cohorts were located throughout the US, recruited between 1987 and 2007, and followed up through age 11 years. The survival analysis was adjusted for mother's education, parental asthma, smoking during pregnancy, child's race and ethnicity, sex, neighborhood characteristics, and cohort. Statistical analysis was performed from February 2022 to December 2023. Exposure: Early-life exposures to PM2.5 and NO2 according to participants' birth address. Main Outcomes and Measures: Caregiver report of physician-diagnosed asthma through early (age 4 years) and middle (age 11 years) childhood. Results: Among 5279 children included, 1659 (31.4%) were Black, 835 (15.8%) were Hispanic, 2555 (48.4%) where White, and 229 (4.3%) were other race or ethnicity; 2721 (51.5%) were male and 2596 (49.2%) were female; 1305 children (24.7%) had asthma by 11 years of age and 954 (18.1%) had asthma by 4 years of age. Mean values of pollutants over the first 3 years of life were associated with asthma incidence. A 1 IQR increase in NO2 (6.1 µg/m3) was associated with increased asthma incidence among children younger than 5 years (HR, 1.25 [95% CI, 1.03-1.52]) and children younger than 11 years (HR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.04-1.44]). A 1 IQR increase in PM2.5 (3.4 µg/m3) was associated with increased asthma incidence among children younger than 5 years (HR, 1.31 [95% CI, 1.04-1.66]) and children younger than 11 years (OR, 1.23 [95% CI, 1.01-1.50]). Associations of PM2.5 or NO2 with asthma were increased when mothers had less than a high school diploma, among Black children, in communities with fewer child opportunities, and in census tracts with higher percentage Black population and population density; for example, there was a significantly higher association between PM2.5 and asthma incidence by younger than 5 years of age in Black children (HR, 1.60 [95% CI, 1.15-2.22]) compared with White children (HR, 1.17 [95% CI, 0.90-1.52]). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, early life air pollution was associated with increased asthma incidence by early and middle childhood, with higher risk among minoritized families living in urban communities characterized by fewer opportunities and resources and multiple environmental coexposures. Reducing asthma risk in the US requires air pollution regulation and reduction combined with greater environmental, educational, and health equity at the community level.

An applied environmental justice framework for exposure science.

On the 30th anniversary of the Principles of Environmental Justice established at the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in 1991 (Principles of Environmental Justice), we continue to call for these principles to be more widely adopted. We propose an environmental justice framework for exposure science to be implemented by all researchers. This framework should be the standard and not an afterthought or trend dismissed by those who believe that science should not be politicized. Most notably, this framework should be centered on the community it seeks to serve. Researchers should meet with community members and stakeholders to learn more about the community, involve them in the research process, collectively determine the environmental exposure issues of highest concern for the community, and develop sustainable interventions and implementation strategies to address them. Incorporating community "funds of knowledge" will also inform the study design by incorporating the knowledge about the issue that community members have based on their lived experiences. Institutional and funding agency funds should also be directed to supporting community needs both during the "active" research phase and at the conclusion of the research, such as mechanisms for dissemination, capacity building, and engagement with policymakers. This multidirectional framework for exposure science will increase the sustainability of the research and its impact for long-term success.

COVID-19 cleaning protocol changes, experiences, and respiratory symptom prevalence among cleaning services personnel.

Introduction: Cleaning protocols were changed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic with unknown occupational health impacts. There is evidence that COVID-19 transmission risks from contaminated surfaces are low and that exposure to cleaning products can increase risks of work-related asthma. The study objective was to investigate relationships between reported COVID-19-related changes in cleaning protocols and prevalence of asthma-related respiratory symptoms for asthmatic and non-asthmatic janitors and maids. A secondary objective was to characterize experiences of respiratory symptoms associated with cleaning and barriers to personal protective equipment (PPE) use. Methods: Employees from two Tucson-based maid service companies (approximately 30 personnel in total) and one Phoenix-based school district (>300 janitors/custodians) were invited to participate in a written survey and/or a one-on-one interview in Spanish or English. Fisher's exact tests (α = 0.05) were used to test for statistically significant associations between reported respiratory symptoms by self-reported physician-diagnosed asthma status and changes in cleaning protocols. Interviews were transcribed and then analyzed by at least two researchers in English or Spanish. Results: Eighty-three percent reported that cleaning protocols had changed during COVID-19, with the two most reported changes including increased cleaning frequency (92%) and change of application type (e.g., fog, spray, wipe) (53%). There was a statistically significant association between multiple respiratory symptoms and self-reported physician diagnosed asthma. Reporting a type of application change (e.g., fog, spray, wipe) and being awakened during the night by attack/episode of cough were statistically significantly associated (p = 0.04). Interviews elucidated respiratory issues related to fogging devices. Discussion: This study provides preliminary evidence that changes in cleaning and disinfection protocols during COVID-19 (namely, the use of fogging/mechanical spraying devices) may have had negative impacts on the health of workers in the cleaning industry with little benefit to reducing COVID-19 risks. Further research is needed to evaluate the generalizability of our findings across larger geographical areas and to develop guidance for employers and employees on how to protect and promote respiratory health.

What a mix! Volatile organic compounds and worker exposure in small business beauty salons in Tucson, Arizona.

Introduction: Small business beauty salons have volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in their workplace air. VOCs are present as ingredients in beauty or hair products. They may also form because of chemical reactions, where thermal-styling elements accelerate the volatilization of these compounds. Uncertainties remain about the relationship between air pollutant concentrations and the variety of beauty salon activities in a work shift. Investigating these associations can help determine high-risk services, associated products, and at-risk workers. Methods: In this exploratory study, female community health workers recruited beauty salons from target zip codes in predominately Latino neighborhoods, including primarily Spanish-speaking small businesses. We collected salon chemical inventories, business characteristics, and participant activity logs to understand how chemicals and activities influence the total and specific VOC concentrations. We sampled personal total VOCs and specific VOCs from the same shop during the participant work shift. We also measured personal total VOCs for four work shifts per shop. Results: A linear mixed effects model of log VOCs on the fixed effect of activity and the random effects of salon and shift within the salon showed that the variance between salons explains over half (55%) of the total variance and is 4.1 times bigger than for shifts within salons. Summa canisters detected 31 specific VOCs, and hazard scores ranged between 0 and 4.3. 2-Propanol (isopropyl alcohol) was the only VOC detected in all shifts of all salons. Discussion: In this study, differences in VOC measurements were primarily between salons. These differences may result from differences in ventilation, services rendered, and product lines applied.