Scaffolds and the scaffolding domain: an alternative paradigm for caveolin-1 signaling.

Caveolin-1 (Cav1) is a 22 kDa intracellular protein that is the main protein constituent of bulb-shaped membrane invaginations known as caveolae. Cav1 can be also found in functional non-caveolar structures at the plasma membrane called scaffolds. Scaffolds were originally described as SDS-resistant oligomers composed of 10-15 Cav1 monomers observable as 8S complexes by sucrose velocity gradient centrifugation. Recently, cryoelectron microscopy (cryoEM) and super-resolution microscopy have shown that 8S complexes are interlocking structures composed of 11 Cav1 monomers each, which further assemble modularly to form higher-order scaffolds and caveolae. In addition, Cav1 can act as a critical signaling regulator capable of direct interactions with multiple client proteins, in particular, the endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS), a role believed by many to be attributable to the highly conserved and versatile scaffolding domain (CSD). However, as the CSD is a hydrophobic domain located by cryoEM to the periphery of the 8S complex, it is predicted to be enmeshed in membrane lipids. This has led some to challenge its ability to interact directly with client proteins and argue that it impacts signaling only indirectly via local alteration of membrane lipids. Here, based on recent advances in our understanding of higher-order Cav1 structure formation, we discuss how the Cav1 CSD may function through both lipid and protein interaction and propose an alternate view in which structural modifications to Cav1 oligomers may impact exposure of the CSD to cytoplasmic client proteins, such as eNOS.

Magnetic resonance quantification of skeletal muscle lipid infiltration in a humanized mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Rodent models of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) often do not recapitulate the severity of muscle wasting and resultant fibro-fatty infiltration observed in DMD patients. Having recently documented severe muscle wasting and fatty deposition in two preclinical models of muscular dystrophy (Dysferlin-null and mdx mice) through apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene deletion without and with cholesterol-, triglyceride-rich Western diet supplementation, we sought to determine whether magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy (MRI and MRS, respectively) could be used to detect, characterize, and compare lipid deposition in mdx-ApoE knockout with mdx mice in a diet-dependent manner. MRI revealed that both mdx and mdx-ApoE mice exhibited elevated proton relaxation time constants (T2 ) in their lower hindlimbs irrespective of diet, indicating both chronic muscle damage and fatty tissue deposition. The mdx-ApoE mice on a Western diet (mdx-ApoEW ) presented with greatest fatty tissue infiltration in the posterior compartment of the hindlimb compared with other groups, as detected by MRI/MRS. High-resolution magic angle spinning confirmed elevated lipid deposition in the posterior compartments of mdx-ApoEW mice in vivo and ex vivo, respectively. In conclusion, the mdx-ApoEW model recapitulates some of the extreme fatty tissue deposition observed clinically in DMD muscle but typically absent in mdx mice. This preclinical model will help facilitate the development of new imaging modalities directly relevant to the image contrast generated in DMD, and help to refine MR-based biomarkers and their relationship to tissue structure and disease progression.

Heterogenous improvements in endothelial function by sub-blood pressure lowering doses of ARBs result in major anti-aortic root remodeling effects.

Low basal nitric oxide (NO) production is associated with a dysfunctional endothelium and vascular diseases. We have shown that some angiotensin II (AngII) receptor type 1 (AT1R) blockers (ARBs), a group of clinic-approved blood pressure (BP)-lowering medications, are also capable of activating endothelial function acutely and chronically, both ex vivo and in vivo, in pleiotropic, AngII-independent fashions, which suggested that endothelial function enhancement with ARBs may be independent of their well-documented BP lowering properties. Herein, we attempt to identify the most potent ARB at activating endothelial function when administered at sub-BP-lowering doses and determine its anti-aortic root remodeling properties in a model of Marfan syndrome (MFS). Amongst the 8 clinically available ARBs tested, only telmisartan and azilsartan induced significant (70% and 49%, respectively) NO-dependent inhibition of aortic contractility when administered for 4 weeks at sub-BP lowering, EC5 doses. Low-dose telmisartan (0.47 mg/kg) attenuated MFS-associated aortic root widening, medial thickening, and elastic fiber fragmentation to the same degree as high-dose telmisartan (10 mg/kg) despite wide differences in BP lowering between the two doses. Our study suggests that telmisartan is the most potent ARB at promoting increased endothelial function at low sub-BP doses and that it retained major aortic root widening inhibition activities. ARBs may enhance endothelial function independently from BP-lowering pathways, which could lead to new therapeutic approaches.

Thermoneutral Housing and a Western Diet Combination Exacerbates Dysferlin-Deficient Muscular Dystrophy.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Most mouse models of muscular dystrophy (MD) show mild phenotypes, which limits the translatability of experimental therapies to patients. A growing body of evidence suggests that MD is accompanied by metabolic abnormalities that could potentially exacerbate the primary muscle wasting process. Since thermoneutral (TN) housing of mice (~30°C) has been shown to affect many metabolic parameters, particularly when combined with a Western diet (WD), our aim was to determine whether the combination of TN and WD exacerbates muscle wasting in dysferlin-deficient BLAJ mice, a common model of limb-girdle MD type 2b (LGMD2b). METHODS: The 2-mo-old wild-type (WT) and BLAJ mice were housed at TN or room temperature (RT) and fed a WD or regular chow for 9 mo. Ambulatory function, muscle histology, and protein immunoblots of skeletal muscle were assessed. RESULTS: BLAJ mice at RT and fed a chow diet showed normal ambulation function similar to WT mice, whereas 90% of BLAJ mice under WD and TN combination showed ambulatory dysfunction (p < 0.001), and an up to 4.1-fold increase in quadriceps and gastrocnemius fat infiltration. Western blotting revealed decreased autophagy marker microtubules-associated protein 1 light chain 3-B (LC3BII/LC3BI) ratio and up-regulation of protein kinase B/AKT and ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation, suggesting inefficient cellular debris and protein clearance in TN BLAJ mice fed a WD. Male and female BLAJ mice under TN and WD combination showed heterogenous fibro-fatty infiltrate composition. DISCUSSION: TN and WD combination exacerbates rodent LGMD2b without affecting WT mice. This improves rodent modeling of human MD and helps elucidate how metabolic abnormalities may play a causal role in muscle wasting.

Podocalyxin is required for maintaining blood-brain barrier function during acute inflammation.

Podocalyxin (Podxl) is broadly expressed on the luminal face of most blood vessels in adult vertebrates, yet its function on these cells is poorly defined. In the present study, we identified specific functions for Podxl in maintaining endothelial barrier function. Using electrical cell substrate impedance sensing and live imaging, we found that, in the absence of Podxl, human umbilical vein endothelial cells fail to form an efficient barrier when plated on several extracellular matrix substrates. In addition, these monolayers lack adherens junctions and focal adhesions and display a disorganized cortical actin cytoskeleton. Thus, Podxl has a key role in promoting the appropriate endothelial morphogenesis required to form functional barriers. This conclusion is further supported by analyses of mutant mice in which we conditionally deleted a floxed allele of Podxl in vascular endothelial cells (vECs) using Tie2Cre mice (PodxlΔTie2Cre). Although we did not detect substantially altered permeability in naïve mice, systemic priming with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) selectively disrupted the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in PodxlΔTie2Cre mice. To study the potential consequence of this BBB breach, we used a selective agonist (TFLLR-NH2) of the protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1), a thrombin receptor expressed by vECs, neuronal cells, and glial cells. In response to systemic administration of TFLLR-NH2, LPS-primed PodxlΔTie2Cre mice become completely immobilized for a 5-min period, coinciding with severely dampened neuroelectric activity. We conclude that Podxl expression by CNS tissue vECs is essential for BBB maintenance under inflammatory conditions.

Endothelial caveolin and its scaffolding domain in cancer.

Since the initial reports implicating caveolin-1 (CAV1) in neoplasia, the scientific community has made tremendous strides towards understanding how CAV1-dependent signaling and caveolae assembly modulate solid tumor growth. Once a solid neoplastic tumor reaches a certain size, it will increasingly rely on its stroma to meet the metabolic demands of the rapidly proliferating cancer cells, a limitation typically but not exclusively addressed via the formation of new blood vessels. Landmark studies using xenograft tumor models have highlighted the importance of stromal CAV1 during neoplastic blood vessel growth from preexisting vasculature, a process called angiogenesis, and helped identify endothelium-specific signaling events regulated by CAV1, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptors as well as the endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS) systems. This chapter provides a glimpse into the signaling events modulated by CAV1 and its scaffolding domain (CSD) during endothelial-specific aspects of neoplastic growth, such as vascular permeability, angiogenesis, and mechanotransduction.

Nitric oxide in the Marfan vasculature: Friend or foe?

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a connective tissue disorder caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene, which encodes fibrillin-1, a protein essential for the formation and stabilization of elastic fibers as well as signaling homeostasis. Progressive aortic root widening is the most serious manifestation of MFS as it can lead to aortic dissection, aneurysm formation and rupture. However, despite their ability to decrease the hemodynamic stress the aorta is subjected to, anti-hypertensive medications often lead to underwhelming reductions in the rate of aortic root dilation, which illustrates how fragmental our understanding of MFS-associated aortic remodeling is. This manuscript summarizes recent evidence that document nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS)-related changes to the vasculature during the pathogenesis of MFS and how they result in a unique state of vascular dysfunction that likely plays a causal role in the aortic root widening process. We also review how clinic-approved and experimental therapies as well lifestyle approaches may promote aortic root stability by correcting NO homeostasis, which if properly optimized may improve outcomes in this population afflicted by a notoriously refractory type of aortopathy.

Sildenafil Prevents Marfan-Associated Emphysema and Early Pulmonary Artery Dilation in Mice.

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a connective tissue disorder caused by mutations in fibrillin-1 (Fbn1). Although aortic rupture is the major cause of mortality in MFS, patients also experience pulmonary complications, which are poorly understood. Loss of basal nitric oxide (NO) production and vascular integrity has been implicated in MFS aortic root disease, yet their contribution to lung complications remains unknown. Because of its capacity to potentiate the vasodilatory NO/cyclic guanylate monophosphate signaling pathway, we assessed whether the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor, sildenafil (SIL), could attenuate aortic root remodeling and emphysema in a mouse model of MFS. Despite increasing NO-dependent vasodilation, SIL unexpectedly elevated mean arterial blood pressure, failed to inhibit MFS aortic root dilation, and exacerbated elastic fiber fragmentation. In the lung, early pulmonary artery dilation observed in untreated MFS mice was delayed by SIL treatment, and the severe emphysema-like alveolar destruction was prevented. In addition, improvements in select parameters of lung function were documented. Subsequent microarray analyses showed changes to gene signatures involved in the inflammatory response in the MFS lung treated with SIL, without significant down-regulation of connective tissue or transforming growth factor-ß signaling genes. Because phosphodiesterase-5 inhibition leads to improved lung histopathology and function, the effects of SIL against emphysema warrant further investigation in the settings of MFS despite limited efficacy on aortic root remodeling.

Proceedings of the Ninth HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Workshop: Focus on Cardiovascular Disease.

The HDL (high-density lipoprotein) Workshop was established in 2009 as a forum for candid discussions among academic basic scientists, clinical investigators, and industry researchers about the role of HDL in cardiovascular disease. This ninth HDL Workshop was held on May 16 to 17, 2019 in Boston, MA, and included outstanding oral presentations from established and emerging investigators. The Workshop featured 5 sessions with topics that tackled the role of HDL in the vasculature, its structural complexity, its role in health and disease states, and its interaction with the intestinal microbiome. The highlight of the program was awarding the Jack Oram Award to the distinguished professor emeritus G.S. Getz from the University of Chicago. The tenth HDL Workshop will be held on May 2020 in Chicago and will continue the focus on intellectually stimulating presentations by established and emerging investigators on novel roles of HDL in cardiovascular and noncardiovascular health and disease states.

Inhibition of Marfan Syndrome Aortic Root Dilation by Losartan: Role of Angiotensin II Receptor Type 1-Independent Activation of Endothelial Function.

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a genetic disorder that frequently leads to aortic root dissection and aneurysm. Despite promising preclinical and pilot clinical data, a recent large-scale study using antihypertensive angiotensin II (AngII) receptor type 1 (ATR1) blocker losartan has failed to meet expectations at preventing MFS-associated aortic root dilation, casting doubts about optimal therapy. To study the deleterious role of normal ATR1 signaling in aortic root widening, we generated MFS mice lacking ATR1a expression in an attempt to preserve protective ATR2 signaling. Despite being hypotensive and resistant to AngII vasopressor effects, MFS/ATR1a-null mice showed unabated aortic root enlargement and remained fully responsive to losartan, confirming that blood pressure lowering is of minor therapeutic value in MFS and that losartan's antiremodeling properties may be ATR1 independent. Having shown that MFS causes endothelial dysfunction and that losartan can activate endothelial function in mice and patients, we found that nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition renders losartan therapeutically inactive, whereas multiple transgenic and pharmacologic models of endothelial NOS activation block aortic root dilation by correcting extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling. In vitro, losartan can increase endothelial NO release in the absence of AngII and correct MFS NO levels in vivo. Our data suggest that increased protective endothelial function, rather than ATR1 inhibition or blood pressure lowering, might be of therapeutic significance in preventing aortic root disease in MFS.

Increased nonHDL cholesterol levels cause muscle wasting and ambulatory dysfunction in the mouse model of LGMD2B.

Progressive limb and girdle muscle atrophy leading to loss of ambulation is a hallmark of dysferlinopathies, which include limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B and Miyoshi myopathy. However, animal models fail to fully reproduce the disease severity observed in humans, with dysferlin-null (Dysf-/-) mice exhibiting minor muscle damage and weakness without dramatic ambulatory dysfunction. As we have previously reported significant Dysf expression in blood vessels, we investigated the role of vascular function in development of muscle pathology by generating a Dysf-deficient mouse model with vascular disease. This was achieved by crossing Dysf-/- mice with ApoE-/- mice, which have high levels of nonHDL-associated cholesterol. Double-knockout Dysf-/-ApoE-/- mice exhibited severe ambulatory dysfunction by 11 months of age. In limb-girdle muscles, histology confirmed dramatic muscle wasting, fibrofatty replacement, and myofiber damage in Dysf-/-ApoE-/- mice without affecting the ratio of centrally nucleated myofibers. Although there were no major changes in ex vivo diaphragm and soleus muscle function, histological analyses revealed these muscles to be untouched by damage and remodelling. In all, these data suggest that cholesterol may be deleterious to dysferlinopathic muscle and lead to ambulatory dysfunction. Moreover, differences in plasma lipid handling between mice and humans could be a key factor affecting dysferlinopathy severity.

Dysferlin deficiency confers increased susceptibility to coxsackievirus-induced cardiomyopathy.

Coxsackievirus infection can lead to viral myocarditis and its sequela, dilated cardiomyopathy, which represent major causes of cardiovascular mortality worldwide in children. Yet, the host genetic susceptible factors and the underlying mechanisms by which viral infection damages cardiac function remain to be fully resolved. Dysferlin is a transmembrane protein highly expressed in skeletal and cardiac muscles. In humans, mutations in the dysferlin gene can cause limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B and Miyoshi myopathy. Dysferlin deficiency has also been linked to cardiomyopathy. Defective muscle membrane repair has been suggested to be an important mechanism responsible for muscle degeneration in dysferlin-deficient patients and animals. Using both naturally occurring and genetically engineered dysferlin-deficient mice, we demonstrated that loss of dysferlin confers increased susceptibility to coxsackievirus infection and myocardial damage. More interestingly, we found that dysferlin is cleaved following coxsackieviral infection through the proteolytic activity of virally encoded proteinases, suggesting an important mechanism underlying virus-induced cardiac dysfunction. Our results in this study not only identify dysferlin deficiency as a novel host risk factor for viral myocarditis but also reveal a key mechanism by which coxsackievirus infection impairs cardiac function, leading to the development of dilated cardiomyopathy.

Deciphering the binding of caveolin-1 to client protein endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS): scaffolding subdomain identification, interaction modeling, and biological significance.

Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) gene inactivation interferes with caveolae formation and causes a range of cardiovascular and pulmonary complications in vivo. Recent evidence suggests that blunted Cav-1/endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) interaction, which occurs specifically in vascular endothelial cells, is responsible for the multiple phenotypes observed in Cav-1-null animals. Under basal conditions, Cav-1 binds eNOS and inhibits nitric oxide (NO) production via the Cav-1 scaffolding domain (CAV; amino acids 82-101). Although we have recently shown that CAV residue Phe-92 is responsible for eNOS inhibition, the "inactive" F92A Cav-1 mutant unexpectedly retains its eNOS binding ability and can increase NO release, indicating the presence of a distinct eNOS binding domain within CAV. Herein, we identified and characterized a small 10-amino acid CAV subsequence (90-99) that accounted for the majority of eNOS association with Cav-1 (Kd = 49 nM), and computer modeling of CAV(90-99) docking to eNOS provides a rationale for the mechanism of eNOS inhibition by Phe-92. Finally, using gene silencing and reconstituted cell systems, we show that intracellular delivery of a F92A CAV(90-99) peptide can promote NO bioavailability in eNOS- and Cav-1-dependent fashions. To our knowledge, these data provide the first detailed analysis of Cav-1 binding to one of its most significant client proteins, eNOS.

Ceramide-activated phosphatase mediates fatty acid-induced endothelial VEGF resistance and impaired angiogenesis.

Endothelial dysfunction, including endothelial hyporesponsiveness to prototypical angiogenic growth factors and eNOS agonists, underlies vascular pathology in many dysmetabolic states. We investigated effects of a saturated free fatty acid, palmitic acid (PA), on endothelial cell responses to VEGF. PA-pretreated endothelial cells had markedly diminished Akt, eNOS, and ERK activation responses to VEGF, despite normal VEGFR2 phosphorylation. PA inhibited VEGF-induced angiogenic cord formation in Matrigel, and PA-treated endothelial cells accumulated early species (C16) ceramide. The serine palmitoyltransferase inhibitor myriocin reversed these defects. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) became more eNOS-associated in PA-treated cells; the PP2A inhibitor okadaic acid reversed PA-induced signaling defects. Mice fed a diet high in saturated fat for 2 to 3 weeks had impaired i) aortic Akt and eNOS phosphorylation to infused VEGF, ii) ear angiogenic responses to intradermal adenoviral-VEGF injection, and iii) vascular flow recovery to hindlimb ischemia as indicated by laser Doppler and αVß3 SPECT imaging. High-fat feeding did not impair VEGF-induced signaling or angiogenic responses in mice with reduced serine palmitoyltransferase expression. Thus, de novo ceramide synthesis is required for these detrimental PA effects. The findings demonstrate an endothelial VEGF resistance mechanism conferred by PA, which comprises ceramide-induced, PP2A-mediated dephosphorylation of critical activation sites on enzymes central to vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis. This study defines potential molecular targets for preservation of endothelial function in metabolic syndrome.

Quantification of aortic and cutaneous elastin and collagen morphology in Marfan syndrome by multiphoton microscopy.

In a mouse model of Marfan syndrome, conventional Verhoeff-Van Gieson staining displays severe fragmentation, disorganization and loss of the aortic elastic fiber integrity. However, this method involves chemical fixatives and staining, which may alter the native morphology of elastin and collagen. Thus far, quantitative analysis of fiber damage in aorta and skin in Marfan syndrome has not yet been explored. In this study, we have used an advanced noninvasive and label-free imaging technique, multiphoton microscopy to quantify fiber fragmentation, disorganization, and total volumetric density of aortic and cutaneous elastin and collagen in a mouse model of Marfan syndrome. Aorta and skin samples were harvested from Marfan and control mice aged 3-, 6- and 9-month. Elastin and collagen were identified based on two-photon excitation fluorescence and second-harmonic-generation signals, respectively, without exogenous label. Measurement of fiber length indicated significant fragmentation in Marfan vs. control. Fast Fourier transform algorithm analysis demonstrated markedly lower fiber organization in Marfan mice. Significantly reduced volumetric density of elastin and collagen and thinner skin dermis were observed in Marfan mice. Cutaneous content of elastic fibers and thickness of dermis in 3-month Marfan resembled those in the oldest control mice. Our findings of early signs of fiber degradation and thinning of skin dermis support the potential development of a novel non-invasive approach for early diagnosis of Marfan syndrome.

Expression of myoferlin in human and murine carcinoma tumors: role in membrane repair, cell proliferation, and tumorigenesis.

Cancer cells are often characterized by high proliferation rates, a consequence of increased mitotic signaling coupled with unchecked cellular growth. We recently demonstrated that vascular endothelial cells unexpectedly express ferlins, a family of muscle-specific proteins capable of regulating the fusion of lipid patches to the plasma membrane, and that these highly regulated membrane fusion events are essential to endothelial cell proliferation and homeostasis. Here, we show that human and mouse breast cancer cell lines also express myoferlin at various levels, and that the processes of transformation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and metastasis do not appear to have any effect on myoferlin expression in vitro. In vivo, we observed that solid mouse and human carcinoma tissues also express high levels of myoferlin protein. Loss-of-function studies performed in mice revealed that myoferlin gene knockdown can attenuate cancer cell proliferation in vitro and decrease tumor burden, and that accelerated tumor cell growth appears to rely on intact myoferlin-dependent membrane repair and signaling under exponential growth conditions. To our knowledge, these data provide the first evidence of myoferlin expression in solid human and mouse tumors. We have thus identified a novel membrane repair process that likely helps sustain the high growth rates characteristic of tumors, and we suggest that interfering with normal myoferlin expression and/or membrane repair and remodeling may provide therapeutically relevant antiproliferative effects.

Losartan and metabolite EXP3179 activate endothelial function without lowering blood pressure in AT2 receptor KO mice.

BACKGROUND: We have documented profound release of nitric oxide (NO) and endothelium-derived hyperpolarization factor (EDHF) by angiotensin II (ANGII) receptor 1 (AT1) blocker (ARB) losartan and its unique metabolite EXP3179, a pleiotropic effect that may help rationalize the protective properties of ARBs. Since blood pressure (BP) lowering by ARBs likely require an ANGII-dependent switch from AT1 to ANGII receptor 2 (AT2) signaling, a receptor known to stimulate endothelial NO release, we investigated the contribution of AT1 and AT2 to losartan and EXP3179's endothelial function-activating properties. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Two AT1 ligands were used in an attempt to block the AT1-dependent endothelium-enhancing effects of EXP3179. AT2-null mice were used to evaluate the acute ex vivo and chronic in vivo effects of EXP3179 (20µM) and losartan (0.6 g/l), respectively, on endothelial function, BP and aortic stiffness. KEY RESULTS: Ex vivo blockade of AT1 receptors did not attenuate EXP3179's effects on NO and EDHF-dependent endothelial function activation. We observed significant reductions in PE-induced contractility with EXP3179 in both WT and AT2 knockout (KO) aortic rings. In vivo, a 1-month chronic treatment with losartan did not affect pulse wave velocity (PWV) but decreased PE-induced contraction by 74.9 % in WT (p < 0.0001) and 47.3 % in AT2 KO (p < 0.05). Presence of AT2 was critical to losartan's BP lowering activity. CONCLUSION: In contrast to BP lowering, the endothelial function-enhancing effects of losartan and EXP3179 are mostly independent of the classic ANGII/AT1/AT2 pathway, which sheds light on ARB pleiotropism.

Differential regulation of cell functions by CSD peptide subdomains.

BACKGROUND: In fibrotic lung diseases, expression of caveolin-1 is decreased in fibroblasts and monocytes. The effects of this deficiency are reversed by treating cells or animals with the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain peptide (CSD, amino acids 82-101 of caveolin-1) which compensates for the lack of caveolin-1. Here we compare the function of CSD subdomains (Cav-A, Cav-B, Cav-C, Cav-AB, and Cav-BC) and mutated versions of CSD (F92A and T90A/T91A/F92A). METHODS: Migration toward the chemokine CXCL12 and the associated expression of F-actin, CXCR4, and pSmad 2/3 were studied in monocytes from healthy donors and SSc patients. Fibrocyte differentiation was studied using PBMC from healthy donors and SSc patients. Collagen I secretion and signaling were studied in fibroblasts derived from the lung tissue of healthy subjects and SSc patients. RESULTS: Cav-BC and CSD at concentrations as low as 0.01 µM inhibited the hypermigration of SSc monocytes and TGFß-activated Normal monocytes and the differentiation into fibrocytes of SSc and Normal monocytes. While CSD also inhibited the migration of poorly migrating Normal monocytes, Cav-A (and other subdomains to a lesser extent) promoted the migration of Normal monocytes while inhibiting the hypermigration of TGFß-activated Normal monocytes. The effects of versions of CSD on migration may be mediated in part via their effects on CXCR4, F-actin, and pSmad 2/3 expression. Cav-BC was as effective as CSD in inhibiting fibroblast collagen I and ASMA expression and MEK/ERK signaling. Cav-C and Cav-AB also inhibited collagen I expression, but in many cases did not affect ASMA or MEK/ERK. Cav-A increased collagen I expression in scleroderma lung fibroblasts. Full effects on fibroblasts of versions of CSD required 5 µM peptide. CONCLUSIONS: Cav-BC retains most of the anti-fibrotic functions of CSD; Cav-A exhibits certain pro-fibrotic functions. Results obtained with subdomains and mutated versions of CSD further suggest that the critical functional residues in CSD depend on the cell type and readout being studied. Monocytes may be more sensitive to versions of CSD than fibroblasts and endothelial cells because the baseline level of caveolin-1 in monocytes is much lower than in these other cell types.

Humanization of the mdx Mouse Phenotype for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Modeling: A Metabolic Perspective.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe form of muscular dystrophy (MD) that is characterized by early muscle wasting and lethal cardiorespiratory failure. While the mdx mouse is the most common model of DMD, it fails to replicate the severe loss of muscle mass and other complications observed in patients, in part due to the multiple rescue pathways found in mice. This led to several attempts at improving DMD animal models by interfering with these rescue pathways through double transgenic approaches, resulting in more severe phenotypes with mixed relevance to the human pathology. As a growing body of literature depicts DMD as a multi-system metabolic disease, improvements in mdx-based modeling of DMD may be achieved by modulating whole-body metabolism instead of muscle homeostasis. This review provides an overview of the established dual-transgenic approaches that exacerbate the mild mdx phenotype by primarily interfering with muscle homeostasis and highlights how advances in DMD modeling coincide with inducing whole-body metabolic changes. We focus on the DBA2/J strain-based D2.mdx mouse with heightened transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß signaling and the dyslipidemic mdx/apolipoprotein E (mdx/ApoE) knock-out (KO) mouse, and summarize how these novel models emulate the metabolic changes observed in DMD.

Dyslipidemia in Muscular Dystrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Muscular dystrophies (MDs) are characterized by chronic muscle wasting but also poorly understood metabolic co-morbidities. We have recently shown that Duchenne MD (DMD) patients, dogs and asymptomatic carriers are affected by a new form of dyslipidemia that may exacerbate muscle damage. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis for evidence that other types of MDs are associated with dyslipidemia compared to healthy controls. METHODS: Search was conducted using MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials for reports that compare plasma/serum lipids from MD patients and controls, and meta-analysis of cross-sectional studies quantifying total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low density lipoprotein and triglycerides was performed. RESULTS: Out of 749 studies, 17 met our inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. 14 of the 17 studies (82%) included investigated myotonic dystrophy (DM); other studies were on pseudohypertrophic MD (PMD) or DMD. As a whole, MD individuals had significantly higher levels of circulating total cholesterol (Hedges' g with 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80 [0.03 - 1.56]; p = 0.04) and triglycerides (Hedges' g with 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.28[0.63 - 3.92]; p = 0.01) compared to controls. Meta-regression analysis showed the percentage of male gender was significantly associated with the difference in total cholesterol (beta = 0.05; 95% CI, - 0.02 to 0.11; p = 0.043) and high-density lipoprotein (beta = - 9.38; 95% CI, - 16.26 to - 2.50; p = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: MD is associated with significantly higher circulating levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides. However, caution on the interpretation of these findings is warranted and future longitudinal research is required to better understand this relationship.