Taste of Fat and Obesity: Different Hypotheses and Our Point of View.

Obesity results from a temporary or prolonged positive energy balance due to an alteration in the homeostatic feedback of energy balance. Food, with its discriminative and hedonic qualities, is a key element of reward-based energy intake. An alteration in the brain reward system for highly palatable energy-rich foods, comprised of fat and carbohydrates, could be one of the main factors involved in the development of obesity by increasing the attractiveness and consumption of fat-rich foods. This would induce, in turn, a decrease in the taste of fat. A better understanding of the altered reward system in obesity may open the door to a new era for the diagnosis, management and treatment of this disease.

Parental practices perceived by children using a French version of the Kids' Child Feeding Questionnaire.

About 18% of 6-11-year-old French children are overweight, of whom 3.3% are obese. Parental feeding practices, especially restriction and pressure-to-eat, seem to promote overeating in children. Since no tool was available for the perception of parental feeding practices of French children, our aim was to validate a French version of the Kids'Child Feeding Questionnaire (KCFQ, Carper, Orlet Fischer, & Birch, 2000), and to determine the relationship between KCFQ's dimensions and children's standardised body mass index (BMI z-scores). The questionnaire was completed by 240 normal-weighted or overweight children between the age of 9 and 11. The validation was based on a confirmatory factor analysis. The internal consistency of factors was confirmed using Cronbach's coefficients. After deleting some items (3 for the pressure-to-eat subscale and 3 for the restriction subscale), the two-factor model (pressure-to-eat, restriction) provided an acceptable fit (χ² (34)=64; RMSEA=.06; CFI=0.93; NNFI=.90), and satisfactory internal consistency. Children's perception of restriction was significantly and positively correlated with BMI z-scores (r=36, p<.001), whereas their perception of pressure-to-eat was not significantly associated with BMI z-scores (r=-.09, p=.24). This scale appears to be a sound tool for highlighting children's perceptions of parental feeding practices, and their links to weight status.

Food choices at lunch during the third year of life: high selection of animal and starchy foods but avoidance of vegetables.

AIM: The objective was to show patterns of food selection by 2- to 3-y-old children for a wide variety of foods in a self-service cafeteria and to assess the effect of individual variables (gender, BMI, mode of feeding after birth and rank in sibship). METHODS: In a nursery self-service canteen, food choices at lunch made by children (n=418, 24-36 mo; 109 observations per child on average) were recorded by trained assistants who monitored portion size. An offer of eight dishes (animal products, starchy foods, combination dishes, vegetables and dairy products), excluding dessert-type foods, was proposed. Choice level was calculated for each food. Analysis of variance was used to compare choices for the various foods and to assess the effect of the individual variables. RESULTS: The choice of a food largely depended upon its nature: animal products, starchy foods and their combinations were widely chosen, whereas vegetables were not often selected; the choice for dairy products depended upon the type. The mode of preparation of the food influenced its choice. Segmenting products were identified; however, except for cheeses, a given child did not refuse an entire food category. Children's characteristics did not explain the choice variability. CONCLUSION: At the age of 2 to 3 y, children preferentially choose animal products and starchy foods and avoid vegetables; the high individual variability of their food choices could be related to previous food experiences.

Food choices at lunch during the third year of life: increase in energy intake but decrease in variety.

AIM: Modelling the evolution between the ages of 2 and 3 y of the energy intake and the variety of free food choices at lunch time in relation to children's and context variables. METHODS: One-year follow-up from 2 to 3 y old. In a nursery canteen, food choices at lunch were recorded by trained assistants who monitored portion size. Energy intake and food variety were estimated. Three hundred and ninety-five children were studied, for 112 meals and over 10 mo on average. Mixed models of analysis of variance were used to take into account the longitudinal character of the data. RESULTS: From 2 to 3 y, energy intake increased. Variety decreased during the first 7 mo and then remained constant. The individual variability in mean values and in evolution was high for both variables. Energy was positively linked to BMI at 2 y. Variety was slightly higher for girls and increased with duration of breastfeeding. Energy was higher in September to November than in December-January. Variety was maximal in December-January and in June-July. CONCLUSION: During the third year of life, while energy intake increases, the restriction of food variety appears to be a normal transition phase. Long duration of breastfeeding is associated with higher food variety.

A prospective study of food variety seeking in childhood, adolescence and early adult life.

This prospective study of food variety seeking among children was conducted between 1982 and 1999, with a follow-up in 2001-2002. Two- to three-year-old children were given a free choice of lunch foods in a nursery canteen. Their food choices were recorded and used to calculate early variety seeking scores, globally and by food group (vegetables, animal products, dairy products, starchy foods and combined dishes). The same subjects (n=339) were contacted in 2001-2002, when they were: 17-22 (n=89), 13-16 (n=68), 8-12 (n=99) and 4-7 years of age (n=83). Follow-up variety seeking, globally and by food group, and food neophobia were evaluated using questionnaire instruments. Variety seeking at follow-up increased with early variety seeking and to a lesser extent with age, and decreased with food neophobia. Early and follow-up variety seeking scores were highly related for dairy products and vegetables. Follow-up variety seeking for animal products was higher for boys and increased with age for boys, but not for girls. For each food group, variety seeking at follow-up was related to food neophobia. This study suggests that the acquisition of food repertoire may be influenced by food exposure and food choice behaviours before the age of 4.