What predicts personal growth following a deployment? An examination of National Guard soldiers through the lens of posttraumatic growth.

National Guard soldiers experience unique reintegration challenges. In addition to managing the consequences of combat-related trauma, they also navigate multiple transitions between military and civilian life. Despite these obstacles, many soldiers report positive outcomes and personal growth due to deployment, a phenomenon most commonly referred to in the literature as posttraumatic growth (PTG). The current study explored PTG in National Guard soldiers using a multidimensional longitudinal approach, with the goal of validating reports of PTG in soldiers. Data were collected from National Guard soldiers at pre-deployment, reintegration, one year post-deployment and two years post-deployment. Informed by PTG theory, three PTG constructs were measured (perceived ability to handle stress, social support seeking, and purpose in life) at each of the four time points, with increases in these constructs indicating growth. Potential predictors of growth in these PTG constructs were also explored. Results from a repeated measure latent profile analysis indicated that PTG did occur in certain soldiers, and that higher optimism and less severe PTSD symptoms predict this growth. These findings emphasize the importance of making efforts to facilitate PTG in soldiers.

Longitudinal Changes Among Latino/a Immigrant Parental Acculturation and Extra-Familial Immigration-Related Stress.

Foreign-born Latino/a immigrants currently make up 12.9% of the total U.S. population. Latino/a immigrants continue to be exposed to widespread health and mental health care disparities. Scholarship focused on the needs of Latino/a immigrants continues to be characterized by multiple gaps. Latino/a immigrants and their families, particularly those with low family annual incomes, are exposed to multiple types of immigration-related stress. However, little is known about how immigration-related stress impacts couples. The objective of this investigation was to examine the interrelationship among acculturation and immigration-related stress as reported by a group of Latino/a immigrant parents who participated in a cultural adaptation parenting study. Data were provided by 78 two-parent families. The statistical approach consisted of latent growth curve analyses to examine rates of change over time. Findings indicated a potential protective role of biculturalism among Latino/a immigrant couples. Research, clinical, and policy implications are discussed.

Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms, Home Learning Environment, and Children's Early Literacy.

The present study examined the influence of mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms on children's early literacy skills. Home learning-related parenting (HLE) was examined as a mediator of these associations. Families (N = 465) were recruited through preschools. Results indicate an actor effect of fathers', but not mothers', depressive symptoms on HLE parenting such that fathers who reported more depressive symptoms engaged in fewer HLE activities. A partner effect of fathers' depressive symptoms on HLE parenting indicated that higher levels of fathers' depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of mothers' home learning activities. Finally, fathers' depressive symptoms negatively related to children's early literacy skills indirectly through mothers' HLE parenting. Findings highlight a process of negative effect of parent depressive symptoms on children's early literacy and emphasize including both mothers and fathers in future research concerned with the influence of parents' depressive symptoms on children's development.

Self-regulation and the Development of Literacy and Language Achievement from Preschool through Second Grade.

Previous research has established that higher levels of behavioral self-regulation are associated with higher levels of language and literacy. In this study, we take a more developmental perspective by considering how trajectories of self-regulation development (early, intermediate, late) predict the way literacy and language skills develop from preschool through second grade. Children (n = 351) were assessed twice per year for up to four years on indicators of decoding, reading comprehension, phonological awareness, and vocabulary. Using non-linear growth curve models, we found that children who demonstrated self-regulation earlier had higher language and literacy skills throughout preschool to second grade. More specifically, earlier self-regulation trajectories were associated with both higher levels and earlier development of both decoding and reading comprehension, but not faster development. Children with early self-regulation trajectories developed phonological awareness earlier than those with late self-regulation trajectories. Finally, children with early self-regulation trajectories had higher levels of vocabulary than children with intermediate trajectories, but did not differ on the rate or timing of vocabulary development. Findings point to the enduring and interconnected nature of self-regulation and children's language and literacy development.

Model Fit and Item Factor Analysis: Overfactoring, Underfactoring, and a Program to Guide Interpretation.

In exploratory item factor analysis (IFA), researchers may use model fit statistics and commonly invoked fit thresholds to help determine the dimensionality of an assessment. However, these indices and thresholds may mislead as they were developed in a confirmatory framework for models with continuous, not categorical, indicators. The present study used Monte Carlo simulation methods to investigate the ability of popular model fit statistics (chi-square, root mean square error of approximation, the comparative fit index, and the Tucker-Lewis index) and their standard cutoff values to detect the optimal number of latent dimensions underlying sets of dichotomous items. Models were fit to data generated from three-factor population structures that varied in factor loading magnitude, factor intercorrelation magnitude, number of indicators, and whether cross loadings or minor factors were included. The effectiveness of the thresholds varied across fit statistics, and was conditional on many features of the underlying model. Together, results suggest that conventional fit thresholds offer questionable utility in the context of IFA.

Misspecification in Latent Change Score Models: Consequences for Parameter Estimation, Model Evaluation, and Predicting Change.

Latent change score models (LCS) are conceptually powerful tools for analyzing longitudinal data (McArdle & Hamagami, 2001). However, applications of these models typically include constraints on key parameters over time. Although practically useful, strict invariance over time in these parameters is unlikely in real data. This study investigates the robustness of LCS when invariance over time is incorrectly imposed on key change-related parameters. Monte Carlo simulation methods were used to explore the impact of misspecification on parameter estimation, predicted trajectories of change, and model fit in the dual change score model, the foundational LCS. When constraints were incorrectly applied, several parameters, most notably the slope (i.e., constant change) factor mean and autoproportion coefficient, were severely and consistently biased, as were regression paths to the slope factor when external predictors of change were included. Standard fit indices indicated that the misspecified models fit well, partly because mean level trajectories over time were accurately captured. Loosening constraint improved the accuracy of parameter estimates, but estimates were more unstable, and models frequently failed to converge. Results suggest that potentially common sources of misspecification in LCS can produce distorted impressions of developmental processes, and that identifying and rectifying the situation is a challenge.

Couples Coping Through Deployment: Findings From a Sample of National Guard Families.

OBJECTIVE: Military families face numerous changes and stresses as they negotiate deployments and other life transitions. How they cope with these events is an important part of their overall well-being and resilience. This longitudinal study on coping in a sample of National Guard couples examined the association between the predeployment coping (active vs. avoidant) of each in the relationship, and their own and their significant others' mental health (anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) and family well-being (dyadic adjustment and parenting stress) postdeployment. METHOD: A total of 238 matched couples completed the predeployment survey, 143 matched couples completed the post, with 122 matched couples completing both pre- and postdeployment surveys. RESULTS: While active coping was not significantly associated with any outcomes, predeployment avoidant coping in both soldiers and significant others was associated with increased anxiety, PTSD, and depression post deployment (actor effects). Additionally, soldier avoidant coping predeployment was associated with increased parenting stress for soldiers, while significant other avoidant coping predeployment was associated with increased relationship distress for significant others (actor effects). Finally, significant other avoidant coping predeployment was associated with higher parenting distress for soldiers postdeployment (partner effect). CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that interventions are needed to combat avoidant coping (behavioral disengagement, denial, substance abuse) predeployment because this way of coping is strongly related to negative outcomes. In addition, those who work clinically with these families should work to reduce avoidant coping strategies and any familial dynamics exacerbated by this way of coping.

Depressive thoughts limit working memory capacity in dysphoria.

Dysphoria is associated with persistence of attention on mood-congruent information. Longer time attending to mood-congruent information for dysphoric individuals (DIs) detracts from goal-relevant information processing and should reduce working memory (WM) capacity. Study 1 showed that DIs and non-DIs have similar WM capacities. Study 2 embedded depressive information into a WM task. Compared to non-DIs, DIs showed significantly reduced WM capacity for goal-relevant information in this task. Study 3 replicated results from Studies 1 and 2, and further showed that DIs had a significantly greater association between processing speed and recall on the depressively modified WM task compared to non-DIs. The presence of inter-task depressive information leads to DI-related decreased WM capacity. Results suggest dysphoria-related WM capacity deficits when depressive thoughts are present. WM capacity deficits in the presence of depressive thoughts are a plausible mechanism to explain day-to-day memory and concentration difficulties associated with depressed mood.

Reexamining epilepsy-associated stigma: validation of the Stigma Scale of Epilepsy in Zambia.

PURPOSE: Epilepsy-associated stigma is an important patient-centered outcome, yet quantification remains challenging. Jacoby's 3-item Stigma Scale is commonly used to assess felt stigma among people with epilepsy (PWE) yet has ceiling effects. The Stigma Scale of Epilepsy (SSE) is a 24-item instrument that measures felt stigma among PWE and stigmatizing attitudes among others. If cross-culturally valid, the SSE may elucidate stigma determinants and provide an outcome measure for interventions. METHODS: We assessed the properties of the SSE in 102 Zambian PWE using exploratory and confirmatory item response theories and compared the latent traits assessed by the SSE to those assessed by Jacoby's Stigma Scale. Differential item functioning based on forced disclosure of epilepsy was examined. RESULTS: The SSE yielded two latent traits--the first reflected difficulties faced by PWE; the second reflected emotions associated with epilepsy. Jacoby's Stigma Scale was associated only with the first latent trait. Forced disclosure was associated with "worry" and "pity" that were associated with the second latent trait. CONCLUSIONS: In Zambian PWE, the SSE captured two latent traits. One trait represents feelings associated with epilepsy, which is theorized as a substantial yet unmeasured part of stigma. The SSE performs well across cultures and may more comprehensively assess felt stigma than other instruments. Further validation is required to determine whether the SSE adequately assesses stigmatizing attitudes among people without epilepsy.

Exploring Preschool Children's Science Content Knowledge.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: The purpose of this study was to describe children's science content knowledge and examine the early predictors of science content knowledge in a sample of 194 typically developing preschool children. Children's science content knowledge was assessed in the fall (Time 1) and spring (Time 2) of the preschool year. Results showed that children exhibited significant gains in science content knowledge over the course of the preschool year. Hierarchical linear modeling results indicated that the level of maternal education (i.e., holding at least a bachelor's degree) significantly predicted children's Time 1 science content knowledge. Children's cognitive, math, and language skills at Time 1 were all significant concurrent predictors of Time 1 science content knowledge. However, only Time 1 math skills significantly predicted residualized gains in science content knowledge (i.e., Time 2 scores with Time 1 scores as covariates). PRACTICE OR POLICY: Factors related to individual differences in young children's science content knowledge may be important for early childhood educators to consider in their efforts to provide more support to children who may need help with science learning.

Development and validation of the housing instability scale.

Despite increasing attention to the importance of examining factors that impact housing instability and homelessness, the field lacks a validated scale of housing instability. The current study examined the reliability and validity of a seven-item scale that measures housing instability. Data were taken from a larger study which implemented the Domestic Violence Housing First model across five domestic violence agencies in the Pacific Northwest. A total of 406 participants were interviewed every six months over a period of two years. A Spanish version of the scale was administered to Spanish-speaking participants. Results provide an overview of the psychometric functioning of the scale and support its utility in assessing housing instability and homelessness. Specifically, the scale demonstrated concurrent and predictive validity, and showed evidence of scalar equivalence over time and across both language and locality. The current scale is therefore a succinct and psychometrically sound measure of housing instability which can be used moving forward to track housing instability in English and Spanish speakers, as well as in urban and rural settings.

The Contributions of Parental Management Language to Executive Function in Preschool Children.

This study investigated relations between preschoolers' emergent executive function skills and their interactions with parents, with particular focus on the verbal utterances parents use to guide children's behavior (i.e., management language). Parent-child dyads (N = 127) were videotaped during a structured play task and the frequency of two types of management language, Direction (high control) and Suggestion (low control), was observed. Children's executive function was assessed using the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task. Latent growth modeling was used to investigate relations between management language and the development of children's executive function. Direction language (i.e., commands) was negatively associated with children's age three executive function but not significantly related to the rate of executive function development over time. Conversely, Suggestion language (i.e., questions and statements that offer children some degree of choice) was positively related to executive function at age three but negatively related to growth. The potential importance of management language as a parenting behavior that contributes to various aspects of children's self-regulation during preschool and kindergarten is discussed.

Chinese-English speaking family perspectives of augmentative and alternative communication use with their children.

INTRODUCTION: Culturally and linguistically diverse families who have children with complex communication needs (CCN) often have limited access to augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices and interventions due to the lack of services that acknowledge their families' cultural and linguistic needs. Despite the increasing need for culturally responsive services, little is known about Chinese-English speaking families' perspectives and experience related to AAC use and services. The objective of this study was to understand the perspectives and experiences of Chinese-English speaking family members of children who use AAC use. METHODS: This study employs a qualitative descriptive methodology approach. The researchers conducted individual or group semi-structured interviews with 10 adult family members (mother, father, and grandparent) from four Chinese-English speaking families in the U.S. and Canada who have a child who uses AAC (ages 3-8). RESULTS: Chinese-English speaking families have high acceptance and satisfaction with their child's AAC as long as they see the benefits of the AAC system. Mothers and siblings play unique roles in supporting home AAC practice given frequent engagement with and observed influence on the child who uses AAC. Family members indicated goals in building stronger family connections, but noted that the child's speech difficulties interfered with this goal. Chinese-English speaking families felt they can overcome limitations resulting from lower English language proficiency, but still find difficulties in obtaining resources because of the Western expectations of advocacy. Additionally, service providers' lack of responsiveness related to family goals could prevent families in obtaining AAC resources. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest the need for family-centered services with cultural sensitivity and humility for those serving Chinese-English speaking families with children who use AAC. Additionally, involving family members beyond the mother within services may improve both family functioning and child communication.

Literacy Growth in the Academic Year versus Summer from Preschool through Second Grade: Differential Effects of Schooling across Four Skills.

Differences in literacy growth over the summer versus the school year were examined in order to isolate how schooling affects children's literacy development from preschool through second grade across four literacy skills. Children (n = 383) were tested individually twice each year for up to four years on measures of phonological awareness, decoding, reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Growth curve analyses indicated that schooling effects were greatest for decoding skills and reading comprehension, were medium in size for phonological awareness, and were less evident for vocabulary. Except for vocabulary, relatively small amounts of growth were observed for preschoolers, followed by a period of rapid growth for kindergarteners and first graders, which slowed again for second graders. Findings demonstrate the differential effect of schooling on four separate literacy skills during the crucial school transition period.

Analysis of letter name knowledge using Rasch measurement.

Letter name knowledge (LNK) is a key predictor of later reading ability and has been emphasized strongly in recent educational policy. Studies of LNK have implicitly treated it as a unidimensional construct with all letters equally relevant to its measurement. However, some empirical research suggests that contextual factors can affect the measurement of LNK. In this study, we analyze responses from 909 children on measures of LNK using the Rasch model and its extensions, and consider two contextual factors: the format of assessment and the own-name advantage, which states that children are more likely to know letters in their own first names. Results indicate that both contextual factors have important impacts on measurement and that LNK does not meet the requirements of Rasch measurement even when accounting for the contextual factors. These findings introduce philosophical concerns for measurement of constrained skills which have limited content for assessment.

Study Length, Change Process Separability, Parameter Estimation, and Model Evaluation in Hybrid Autoregressive-Latent Growth Structural Equation Models for Longitudinal Data.

Hybrid autoregressive-latent growth structural equation models for longitudinal data represent a synthesis of the autoregressive and latent growth modeling frameworks. Although these models are conceptually powerful, in practice they may struggle to separate autoregressive and growth related processes during estimation. This confounding of change processes may, in turn, increase the risk of the models producing deceptively compelling results (i.e., models that fit excellently by conventional standards despite highly biased parameter estimates). Including additional time points provides models with more raw information about change, which could help improve process separability and the accuracy of parameter estimates to a degree. This study thus used Monte Carlo simulation methods to examine associations between change process separability, the number of time points in a model, and the consequences of misspecification, across three prominent hybrid autoregressive-latent growth models: the Latent Change Score model (LCS; McArdle, 2001), the Autoregressive Latent Trajectory Model (ALT; Bollen & Curran, 2006), and the Latent Growth Model with Structured Residuals (LGM-SR; Curran et al., 2014). Results showed that including more time points increased process separability and robustness to misspecification in the LCS and ALT, but typically not at a rate that would be practically feasible for most developmental researchers. Alternatively, regardless of how many time points were in the model process separability was high in the LGM-SR, as was robustness to misspecification. Overall, results suggest that the LGM-SR is the most effective of the three hybrid autoregressive-latent growth models considered here.

The Contribution of Vocabulary, Grammar, and Phonological Awareness Across a Continuum of Narrative Ability Levels in Young Children.

Purpose Narrative skill represents a higher-level linguistic skill that shows incremental development in the preschool years. During these years, there are considerable individual differences in this skill, with some children being highly skilled narrators (i.e., precocious) relative to peers of their age. In this study, we explored the contribution of three lower-level language skills to a range of narrative abilities, from children performing below expected levels for their age to those performing much higher than the expected levels for their age. We speculated that individual differences in lower-level skills would contribute meaningfully to variability in narrative skills. Method Using a sample of 336 children between 3 and 6 years of age (M = 4.27 years, SD = 0.65), both multiple regression and quantile regression approaches were used to explore how vocabulary, grammar, and phonological awareness account for variance in children's "narrative ability index" (NAI), an index of how children scored on the Narrative Assessment Protocol-Second Edition relative to the expected performance for their age. Results Multiple regression results indicated that lower-level language skills explained a significant amount of variance (approximately 13%) in children's NAI scores. Quantile regression results indicated that phonological awareness and vocabulary accounted for significant variance in children's NAI scores at lower quantiles. At the median quantile, vocabulary and grammar accounted for significant variance in children's NAI scores. For precocious narrators, only vocabulary accounted for a significant amount of variance in children's NAI scores. Conclusion Results indicate that lower-level language skills work in conjunction to support narrative skills at different ability levels, improving understanding of how lower-level language skills contribute across a spectrum of higher-level linguistic abilities.

The Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders Revised: Links to Academic Outcomes and Measures of EF in Young Children.

The measurement of self-regulation in young children has been a topic of great interest as researchers and practitioners work to help ensure that children have the skills they need to succeed as they start school. The present study examined how a revised version of a commonly used measure of behavioral self-regulation, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) called the HTKS-R, and measures of executive function (EF) was related to academic outcomes between preschool and kindergarten (ages 4-6years) in a diverse sample of children from families with low income participating in Head Start in the United States. Participants included 318 children (53% female; 76% White; and 20% Latino/Hispanic) from 64 classrooms in 18 Head Start preschools who were followed over four time points between the fall of preschool and the spring of kindergarten. Results indicated that children with higher HTKS-R scores had significantly higher math and literacy scores at all-time points between preschool and kindergarten. The HTKS-R was also a more consistent predictor of math and literacy than individual EF measures assessing inhibitory control, working memory, and task shifting. Parallel process growth models indicated that children who had high initial scores on the HTKS-R also had relatively higher initial scores on math and literacy. In addition, growth in children's scores on the HTKS-R across the preschool and kindergarten years was related to growth in both children's math and literacy scores over the same period independent of their starting points on either measure. For the HTKS-R and math, children's initial scores were negatively associated with growth over the preschool and kindergarten years indicating that lower skilled children at the start of preschool started to catch up to their more skilled peers by the end of kindergarten.

The Access to Literacy Assessment System for Phonological Awareness: An Adaptive Measure of Phonological Awareness Appropriate for Children With Speech and/or Language Impairment.

Purpose The Access to Literacy Assessment System-Phonological Awareness (ATLAS-PA) was developed for use with children with speech and/or language impairment. The subtests (Rhyming, Blending, and Segmenting) are appropriate for children who are 3-7 years of age. ATLAS-PA is composed entirely of receptive items, incorporates individualized levels of instruction, and is adaptive in nature. Method To establish the construct validity of ATLAS-PA, we collected data from children with typical development (n = 938) and those who have speech and/or language impairment (n = 227). Results Rasch analyses indicated that items fit well together and formed a unidimensional construct of phonological awareness. Differential item functioning was minimal between the two groups of children, and scores on ATLAS-PA were moderately to strongly related to other measures of phonological awareness. Information about item functioning was used to create an adaptive version of ATLAS-PA. Conclusions Findings suggest that ATLAS-PA is a valid measure of phonological awareness that can be used with children with typical development and with speech and/or language impairment. Its adaptive format minimizes testing time and provides opportunities for monitoring progress in preschool and early elementary classrooms. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12931691.

Development of the Narrative Assessment Protocol-2: A Tool for Examining Young Children's Narrative Skill.

Purpose Narrative skill, a child's ability to create a temporally sequenced account of an experience or event, is considered an important domain of children's language development. Narrative skill is strongly predictive of later language and literacy and is emphasized in curricula and educational standards. However, the need to transcribe a child's narrative and the lack of psychometrically justified scoring methods have precluded broad consideration of narrative skill among practitioners. We describe the development and validation of the Narrative Assessment Protocol-2 (NAP-2), an assessment of narrative skill for children ages 3-6 years, which uses event-based frequency scoring directly from a video recording of a child's narrative. Method The NAP-2 underwent a rigorous development process involving creation of four wordless picture books and associated scripts and identification of a broad item pool, including aspects of narrative microstructure and macrostructure. We collected two narratives from each of 470 children using the NAP-2 elicitation materials and scored each with the 60 items in the initial item pool. Results Cross-validated exploratory factor analyses indicated a single narrative skill factor. Rasch measurement analysis led to selection of 20 items that maintained high reliability while having good fit to the model and no evidence of differential item functioning across books and gender. Conclusions The NAP-2 offers a psychometrically sound and easy-to-use assessment of narrative skill for children ages 3-6 years. The NAP-2 is available freely online for use by speech-language pathologists, educational practitioners, and researchers. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.11800779.