Insights into the molecular basis and mechanism of heme-triggered TLR4 signalling: The role of heme-binding motifs in TLR4 and MD2.

Haemolytic disorders, such as sickle cell disease, are accompanied by the release of high amounts of labile heme into the intravascular compartment resulting in the induction of proinflammatory and prothrombotic complications in affected patients. In addition to the relevance of heme-regulated proteins from the complement and blood coagulation systems, activation of the TLR4 signalling pathway by heme was ascribed a crucial role in the progression of these pathological processes. Heme binding to the TLR4-MD2 complex has been proposed recently, however, essential mechanistic information of the processes at the molecular level, such as heme-binding kinetics, the heme-binding capacity and the respective heme-binding sites (HBMs) is still missing. We report the interaction of TLR4, MD2 and the TLR4-MD2 complex with heme and the consequences thereof by employing biochemical, spectroscopic, bioinformatic and physiologically relevant approaches. Heme binding occurs transiently through interaction with up to four HBMs in TLR4, two HBMs in MD2 and at least four HBMs in their complex. Functional studies highlight that mutations of individual HBMs in TLR4 preserve full receptor activation by heme, suggesting that heme interacts with TLR4 through different binding sites independently of MD2. Furthermore, we confirm and extend the major role of TLR4 for heme-mediated cytokine responses in human immune cells.

MIF is essential to the establishment of house dust mite-induced airway inflammation and tissue remodeling in mice.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is present in high amounts in the BALF and serum of asthmatic patients, contributing to the pathogenesis of experimental asthma induced by OVA in mice. Whether MIF contributes to the physiopathology on a more complex and relevant asthma model has not been characterized. Mif-deficient (Mif-/- ) or WT mice treated with anti-MIF antibody were challenged multiple times using house dust mite (HDM) extract by the intranasal route. HDM-challenged Mif-/- mice presented decreased airway hyperresponsiveness, lung infiltration of eosinophils, mucus hypersecretion, and subepithelial fibrosis compared to HDM-challenged WT mice. Amounts of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 were decreased in the lungs of Mif-/- mice upon HDM challenges, but the increase of CCL11 was preserved, compared to HDM-challenged WT mice. We also observed increased numbers of group 2 innate lymphoid cells and Th2 cells in the BALF and mediastinal LNs (mLN)-induced challenged by HDM of WT mice, but not in HDM-challenged Mif-/- mice. Anti-MIF treatment abrogated the airway infiltration of eosinophils, mucus hypersecretion, and subepithelial fibrosis in the lungs of HDM-challenged mice. In conclusion, MIF ablation prevents the pathologic hallmarks of asthma in HDM-challenged mice, reinforcing the promising target of MIF for asthma therapy.

Lipid droplet accumulation occurs early following Salmonella infection and contributes to intracellular bacterial survival and replication.

Salmonellosis is a public health problem caused by Salmonella sp., a highly adapted facultative intracellular pathogen. After internalization, Salmonella sp. Manipulates several host processes, mainly through the activation of the type III secretion system (T3SS), including modification of host lipid metabolism and lipid droplet (LD) accumulation. LDs are dynamic and complex lipid-rich organelles involved in several cellular processes. The present study investigated the mechanism involved in LD biogenesis in Salmonella-infected macrophages and its role in bacterial pathogenicity. Here, we reported that S. Typhimurium induced a rapid time-dependent increase of LD formation in macrophages. The LD biogenesis was demonstrated to depend on Salmonella's viability and SPI1-related T3SS activity, with the participation of Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) signaling. We also observed that LD accumulation occurs through TLR2-dependent signaling and is counter-regulated by TLR4. Last, the pharmacologic modulation of LD formation by inhibiting diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) and cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) significantly reduced the intracellular bacterial proliferation and impaired the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) synthesis. Collectively, our data suggest the role of LDs on S. typhimurium intracellular survival and replication in macrophages. This data set provides new perspectives for future investigations about LDs in host-pathogen interaction.

Heme oxygenase-1 in protozoan infections: A tale of resistance and disease tolerance.

Heme oxygenase (HO-1) mediates the enzymatic cleavage of heme, a molecule with proinflammatory and prooxidant properties. HO-1 activity deeply impacts host capacity to tolerate infection through reduction of tissue damage or affecting resistance, the ability of the host to control pathogen loads. In this Review, we will discuss the contribution of HO-1 in different and complex protozoan infections, such as malaria, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and toxoplasmosis. The complexity of these infections and the pleiotropic effects of HO-1 constitute an interesting area of study and an opportunity for drug development.

CXCR4 and MIF are required for neutrophil extracellular trap release triggered by Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) evolved as a unique effector mechanism contributing to resistance against infection that can also promote tissue damage in inflammatory conditions. Malaria infection can trigger NET release, but the mechanisms and consequences of NET formation in this context remain poorly characterized. Here we show that patients suffering from severe malaria had increased amounts of circulating DNA and increased neutrophil elastase (NE) levels in plasma. We used cultured erythrocytes and isolated human neutrophils to show that Plasmodium-infected red blood cells release macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which in turn caused NET formation by neutrophils in a mechanism dependent on the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4). NET production was dependent on histone citrullination by peptidyl arginine deiminase-4 (PAD4) and independent of reactive oxygen species (ROS), myeloperoxidase (MPO) or NE. In vitro, NETs functioned to restrain parasite dissemination in a mechanism dependent on MPO and NE activities. Finally, C57/B6 mice infected with P. berghei ANKA, a well-established model of cerebral malaria, presented high amounts of circulating DNA, while treatment with DNAse increased parasitemia and accelerated mortality, indicating a role for NETs in resistance against Plasmodium infection.

Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species Participate in Signaling Triggered by Heme in Macrophages and upon Hemolysis.

Hemolysis causes an increase of intravascular heme, oxidative damage, and inflammation in which macrophages play a critical role. In these cells, heme can act as a prototypical damage-associated molecular pattern, inducing TLR4-dependent cytokine production through the MyD88 pathway, independently of TRIF. Heme promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation independently of TLR4. ROS and TNF production contribute to heme-induced necroptosis and inflammasome activation; however, the role of ROS in proinflammatory signaling and cytokine production remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that heme activates at least three signaling pathways that contribute to a robust MAPK phosphorylation and cytokine expression in mouse macrophages. Although heme did not induce a detectable Myddosome formation, the TLR4/MyD88 axis was important for phosphorylation of p38 and secretion of cytokines. ROS generation and spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) activation induced by heme were critical for most proinflammatory signaling pathways, as the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine and a Syk inhibitor differentially blocked heme-induced ROS, MAPK phosphorylation, and cytokine production in macrophages. Early generated mitochondrial ROS induced by heme was Syk dependent, selectively promoted the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 without affecting JNK or p38, and contributed to CXCL1 and TNF production. Finally, lethality caused by sterile hemolysis in mice required TLR4, TNFR1, and mitochondrial ROS, supporting the rationale to target these pathways to mitigate tissue damage of hemolytic disorders.

Intracerebral Injection of Heme Induces Lipid Peroxidation, Neuroinflammation, and Sensorimotor Deficits.

Background and Purpose: Heme is a red blood cell component released in the brain parenchyma following intracerebral hemorrhage. However, the study of the pathophysiological mechanisms triggered by heme in the brain is hampered by the lack of well-established in vivo models of intracerebral heme injection. This study aims to optimize and characterize a protocol of intrastriatal heme injection in mice, with a focus on the induction of lipid peroxidation, neuroinflammation and, ultimately, sensorimotor deficits. We also evaluated the involvement of NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3), an inflammasome sensor, in the behavior deficits induced by heme in this model. Methods: Mice were injected with heme in the striatum for the evaluation of neuroinflammation and brain damage through histological and biochemical techniques. Immunoblot was used to evaluate the expression of proteins involved in heme/iron metabolism and antioxidant responses and the activation of the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) signaling pathway. For the assessment of neurological function, we followed-up heme-injected mice for 2 weeks using the rotarod, elevated body swing, and cylinder tests. Mice injected with the vehicle (sham), or autologous blood were used as controls. Results: Heme induced lipid peroxidation and inflammation in the brain. Moreover, heme increased the expression of HO-1 (heme oxygenase-1), ferritin, p62, and superoxide dismutase 2, and activated the MAPK signaling pathway promoting pro-IL (interleukin)-1ß production and its cleavage to the active form. Heme-injected mice exhibited signs of brain damage and reactive astrogliosis around the injection site. Behavior deficits were observed after heme or autologous blood injection in comparison to sham-operated controls. In addition, behavior deficits and IL-1ß production were reduced in Nlrp3 knockout mice in comparison to wild-type mice. Conclusions: Our results show that intracerebral heme injection induces neuroinflammation, and neurological deficits, in an NLRP3-dependent manner, suggesting that this is a feasible model to evaluate the role of heme in neurological disorders.

ROS and Trypanosoma cruzi: Fuel to infection, poison to the heart.

The activation of macrophage respiratory burst in response to infection with Trypanosoma cruzi inflicts oxidative damage to the host's tissues. For decades, the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the elimination of T. cruzi was taken for granted, but recent evidence suggests parasite growth is stimulated in oxidative environments. It is still a matter of debate whether indeed oxidative environments provide ideal conditions (e.g., iron availability in macrophages) for T. cruzi growth and whether indeed ROS signals directly to stimulate growth. Nitric oxide (NO) and ROS combine to form peroxynitrite, participating in the killing of phagocytosed parasites by activated macrophages. In response to infection, mitochondrial ROS are produced by cardiomyocytes. They contribute to oxidative damage that persists at the chronic stage of infection and is involved in functional impairment of the heart. In this review, we discuss how oxidative stress helps parasite growth during the acute stage and how it participates in the development of cardiomyopathy at the chronic stage.

Protein aggregation as a cellular response to oxidative stress induced by heme and iron.

Hemolytic diseases include a variety of conditions with diverse etiologies in which red blood cells are destroyed and large amounts of hemeproteins are released. Heme has been described as a potent proinflammatory molecule that is able to induce multiple innate immune responses, such as those triggered by TLR4 and the NLRP3 inflammasome, as well as necroptosis in macrophages. The mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells respond to the toxic effects induced by heme to maintain homeostasis are not fully understood, however. Here we describe a previously uncharacterized cellular response induced by heme: the formation of p62/SQTM1 aggregates containing ubiquitinated proteins in structures known as aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS). This action is part of a response driven by the transcription factor NRF2 to the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species induced by heme that results in the expression of genes involved in antioxidant responses, including p62/SQTM1. Furthermore, we show that heme degradation by HO-1 is required for ALIS formation, and that the free iron released on heme degradation is necessary and sufficient to induce ALIS. Moreover, ferritin, a key protein in iron metabolism, prevents excessive ALIS formation. Finally, in vivo, hemolysis promotes an increase in ALIS formation in target tissues. Our data unravel a poorly understood aspect of the cellular responses induced by heme that can be explored to better understand the effects of free heme and free iron during hemolytic diseases such as sickle cell disease, dengue fever, malaria, and sepsis.

Resveratrol Reverses Functional Chagas Heart Disease in Mice.

Chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy (CCC) develops years after acute infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and does not improve after trypanocidal therapy, despite reduction of parasite burden. During disease, the heart undergoes oxidative stress, a potential causative factor for arrhythmias and contractile dysfunction. Here we tested whether antioxidants/ cardioprotective drugs could improve cardiac function in established Chagas heart disease. We chose a model that resembles B1-B2 stage of human CCC, treated mice with resveratrol and performed electrocardiography and echocardiography studies. Resveratrol reduced the prolonged PR and QTc intervals, increased heart rates and reversed sinus arrhythmia, atrial and atrioventricular conduction disorders; restored a normal left ventricular ejection fraction, improved stroke volume and cardiac output. Resveratrol activated the AMPK-pathway and reduced both ROS production and heart parasite burden, without interfering with vascularization or myocarditis intensity. Resveratrol was even capable of improving heart function of infected mice when treatment was started late after infection, while trypanocidal drug benznidazole failed. We attempted to mimic resveratrol's actions using metformin (AMPK-activator) or tempol (SOD-mimetic). Metformin and tempol mimicked the beneficial effects of resveratrol on heart function and decreased lipid peroxidation, but did not alter parasite burden. These results indicate that AMPK activation and ROS neutralization are key strategies to induce tolerance to Chagas heart disease. Despite all tissue damage observed in established Chagas heart disease, we found that a physiological dysfunction can still be reversed by treatment with resveratrol, metformin and tempol, resulting in improved heart function and representing a starting point to develop innovative therapies in CCC.

RIPK1 and PGAM5 Control Leishmania Replication through Distinct Mechanisms.

Leishmaniasis is an important parasitic disease found in the tropics and subtropics. Cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis affect an estimated 1.5 million people worldwide. Despite its human health relevance, relatively little is known about the cell death pathways that control Leishmania replication in the host. Necroptosis is a recently identified form of cell death with potent antiviral effects. Receptor interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) is a critical kinase that mediates necroptosis downstream of death receptors and TLRs. Heme, a product of hemoglobin catabolism during certain intracellular pathogen infections, is also a potent inducer of macrophage necroptosis. We found that human visceral leishmaniasis patients exhibit elevated serum levels of heme. Therefore, we examined the impact of heme and necroptosis on Leishmania replication. Indeed, heme potently inhibited Leishmania replication in bone marrow-derived macrophages. Moreover, we found that inhibition of RIPK1 kinase activity also enhanced parasite replication in the absence of heme. We further found that the mitochondrial phosphatase phosphoglycerate mutase family member 5 (PGAM5), a putative downstream effector of RIPK1, was also required for inhibition of Leishmania replication. In mouse infection, both PGAM5 and RIPK1 kinase activity are required for IL-1ß expression in response to Leishmania However, PGAM5, but not RIPK1 kinase activity, was directly responsible for Leishmania-induced IL-1ß secretion and NO production in bone marrow-derived macrophages. Collectively, these results revealed that RIPK1 and PGAM5 function independently to exert optimal control of Leishmania replication in the host.

Short-Term Regulation of FcγR-Mediated Phagocytosis by TLRs in Macrophages: Participation of 5-Lipoxygenase Products.

TLRs recognize a broad spectrum of microorganism molecules, triggering a variety of cellular responses. Among them, phagocytosis is a critical process for host defense. Leukotrienes (LTs), lipid mediators produced from 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) enzyme, increase FcγR-mediated phagocytosis. Here, we evaluated the participation of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 in FcγR-mediated phagocytosis and whether this process is modulated by LTs. Rat alveolar macrophages (AMs), murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), and peritoneal macrophages (PMs) treated with TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4 agonists, but not TLR9, enhanced IgG-opsonized sheep red blood cell (IgG-sRBC) phagocytosis. Pretreatment of AMs or BMDMs with drugs that block LT synthesis impaired the phagocytosis promoted by TLR ligands, and TLR potentiation was also abrogated in PMs and BMDMs from 5-LO-/- mice. LTB4 production induced by IgG engagement was amplified by TLR ligands, while cys-LTs were amplified by activation of TLR2 and TLR4, but not by TLR3. We also noted higher ERK1/2 phosphorylation in IgG-RBC-challenged cells when preincubated with TLR agonists. Furthermore, ERK1/2 inhibition by PD98059 reduced the phagocytic activity evoked by TLR agonists. Together, these data indicate that TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4 ligands, but not TLR9, amplify IgG-mediated phagocytosis by a mechanism which requires LT production and ERK-1/2 pathway activation.

Hemolysis-induced lethality involves inflammasome activation by heme.

The increase of extracellular heme is a hallmark of hemolysis or extensive cell damage. Heme has prooxidant, cytotoxic, and inflammatory effects, playing a central role in the pathogenesis of malaria, sepsis, and sickle cell disease. However, the mechanisms by which heme is sensed by innate immune cells contributing to these diseases are not fully characterized. We found that heme, but not porphyrins without iron, activated LPS-primed macrophages promoting the processing of IL-1ß dependent on nucleotide-binding domain and leucine rich repeat containing family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3). The activation of NLRP3 by heme required spleen tyrosine kinase, NADPH oxidase-2, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, and K(+) efflux, whereas it was independent of heme internalization, lysosomal damage, ATP release, the purinergic receptor P2X7, and cell death. Importantly, our results indicated the participation of macrophages, NLRP3 inflammasome components, and IL-1R in the lethality caused by sterile hemolysis. Thus, understanding the molecular pathways affected by heme in innate immune cells might prove useful to identify new therapeutic targets for diseases that have heme release.

Platelets mediate increased endothelium permeability in dengue through NLRP3-inflammasome activation.

Dengue is the most frequent hemorrhagic viral disease and re-emergent infection in the world. Although thrombocytopenia is characteristically observed in mild and severe forms of dengue, the role of platelet activation in dengue pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated. We hypothesize that platelets have major roles in inflammatory amplification and increased vascular permeability during severe forms of dengue. Here we investigate interleukin (IL)-1ß synthesis, processing, and secretion in platelets during dengue virus (DV) infection and potential contribution of these events to endothelial permeability during infection. We observed increased expression of IL-1ß in platelets and platelet-derived microparticles from patients with dengue or after platelet exposure to DV in vitro. We demonstrated that DV infection leads to assembly of nucleotide-binding domain leucine rich repeat containing protein (NLRP3) inflammasomes, activation of caspase-1, and caspase-1-dependent IL-1ß secretion. Our findings also indicate that platelet-derived IL-1ß is chiefly released in microparticles through mechanisms dependent on mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-triggered NLRP3 inflammasomes. Inflammasome activation and platelet shedding of IL-1ß-rich microparticles correlated with signs of increased vascular permeability. Moreover, microparticles from DV-stimulated platelets induced enhanced permeability in vitro in an IL-1-dependent manner. Our findings provide new evidence that platelets contribute to increased vascular permeability in DV infection by inflammasome-dependent release of IL-1ß.

Heme induces programmed necrosis on macrophages through autocrine TNF and ROS production.

Diseases that cause hemolysis or myonecrosis lead to the leakage of large amounts of heme proteins. Free heme has proinflammatory and cytotoxic effects. Heme induces TLR4-dependent production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), whereas heme cytotoxicity has been attributed to its ability to intercalate into cell membranes and cause oxidative stress. We show that heme caused early macrophage death characterized by the loss of plasma membrane integrity and morphologic features resembling necrosis. Heme-induced cell death required TNFR1 and TLR4/MyD88-dependent TNF production. Addition of TNF to Tlr4(-/-) or to Myd88(-/-) macrophages restored heme-induced cell death. The use of necrostatin-1, a selective inhibitor of receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1, also known as RIPK1), or cells deficient in Rip1 or Rip3 revealed a critical role for RIP proteins in heme-induced cell death. Serum, antioxidants, iron chelation, or inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) ameliorated heme-induced oxidative burst and blocked macrophage cell death. Macrophages from heme oxygenase-1 deficient mice (Hmox1(-/-)) had increased oxidative stress and were more sensitive to heme. Taken together, these results revealed that heme induces macrophage necrosis through 2 synergistic mechanisms: TLR4/Myd88-dependent expression of TNF and TLR4-independent generation of ROS.

Heme oxygenase-1 promotes the persistence of Leishmania chagasi infection.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) remains a major public health problem worldwide. This disease is highly associated with chronic inflammation and a lack of the cellular immune responses against Leishmania. It is important to identify major factors driving the successful establishment of the Leishmania infection to develop better tools for the disease control. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a key enzyme triggered by cellular stress, and its role in VL has not been investigated. In this study, we evaluated the role of HO-1 in the infection by Leishmania infantum chagasi, the causative agent of VL cases in Brazil. We found that L. chagasi infection or lipophosphoglycan isolated from promastigotes triggered HO-1 production by murine macrophages. Interestingly, cobalt protoporphyrin IX, an HO-1 inductor, increased the parasite burden in both mouse and human-derived macrophages. Upon L. chagasi infection, macrophages from Hmox1 knockout mice presented significantly lower parasite loads when compared with those from wild-type mice. Furthermore, upregulation of HO-1 by cobalt protoporphyrin IX diminished the production of TNF-α and reactive oxygen species by infected murine macrophages and increased Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase expression in human monocytes. Finally, patients with VL presented higher systemic concentrations of HO-1 than healthy individuals, and this increase of HO-1 was reduced after antileishmanial treatment, suggesting that HO-1 is associated with disease susceptibility. Our data argue that HO-1 has a critical role in the L. chagasi infection and is strongly associated with the inflammatory imbalance during VL. Manipulation of HO-1 pathways during VL could serve as an adjunctive therapeutic approach.

Lack of galectin-3 speeds Wallerian degeneration by altering TLR and pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions in injured sciatic nerve.

Wallerian degeneration (WD) comprises a series of events that includes activation of non-neuronal cells and recruitment of immune cells, creating an inflammatory milieu that leads to extensive nerve fragmentation and subsequent clearance of the myelin debris, both of which are necessary prerequisites for effective nerve regeneration. Previously, we documented accelerated axon regeneration in animals lacking galectin-3 (Gal-3), a molecule associated with myelin clearance. To clarify the mechanisms underlying this enhanced regeneration, we focus here on the early steps of WD following sciatic nerve crush in Gal-3(-/-) mice. Using an in vivo model of nerve degeneration, we observed that removal of myelin debris is more efficient in Gal-3(-/-) than in wild-type (WT) mice; we next used an in vitro phagocytosis assay to document that the phagocytic potential of macrophages and Schwann cells was enhanced in the Gal-3(-/-) mice. Moreover, both RNA and protein levels for the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and TNF-α, as well as for Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 and -4, show robust increases in injured nerves from Gal-3(-/-) mice compared to those from WT mice. Collectively, these data indicate that the lack of Gal-3 results in an augmented inflammatory profile that involves the TLR-cytokine pathway, and increases the phagocytic capacity of Schwann cells and macrophages, which ultimately contributes to speeding the course of WD.

Binding of the wheat germ lectin to Cryptococcus neoformans chitooligomers affects multiple mechanisms required for fungal pathogenesis.

The principal capsular component of Cryptococcus neoformans, glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), interacts with surface glycans, including chitin-like oligomers. Although the role of GXM in cryptococcal infection has been well explored, there is no information on how chitooligomers affect fungal pathogenesis. In this study, surface chitooligomers of C. neoformans were blocked through the use of the wheat germ lectin (WGA) and the effects on animal pathogenesis, interaction with host cells, fungal growth and capsule formation were analyzed. Treatment of C. neoformans cells with WGA followed by infection of mice delayed mortality relative to animals infected with untreated fungal cells. This observation was associated with reduced brain colonization by lectin-treated cryptococci. Blocking chitooligomers also rendered yeast cells less efficient in their ability to associate with phagocytes. WGA did not affect fungal viability, but inhibited GXM release to the extracellular space and capsule formation. In WGA-treated yeast cells, genes that are involved in capsule formation and GXM traffic had their transcription levels decreased in comparison with untreated cells. Our results suggest that cellular pathways required for capsule formation and pathogenic mechanisms are affected by blocking chitin-derived structures at the cell surface of C. neoformans. Targeting chitooligomers with specific ligands may reveal new therapeutic alternatives to control cryptococcosis.

Oral immunization with Lactococcus lactis secreting attenuated recombinant staphylococcal enterotoxin B induces a protective immune response in a murine model.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus is unrestrictedly found in humans and in animal species that maintain thermal homeostasis. Inadequate cleaning of processing equipment or inappropriate handling can contaminate processed food and cause severe food poisoning. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), a potent superantigenic exotoxin, is produced by 50% of clinical isolates of S. aureus and is associated with massive food poisoning and with the induction of toxic shock syndrome. RESULTS: A gene sequence encoding a recombinant SEB (rSEB), devoid of superantigenic activity, was successfully cloned and expressed in a cytoplasmic or a secreted form in the food-grade lactic acid bacterium Lactococcus lactis. The recombinant protein detected in the cytoplasm or in the culture medium exhibited the expected molecular mass and was recognized by a SEB-polyclonal antibody. Oral immunization with the recombinant L. lactis strains induced a protective immune response in a murine model of S. aureus infection. Immunized mice survived intraperitoneal challenge with an S. aureus SEB-producer strain. Counts of S. aureus in the spleen of rSEB-immunized mice were significantly reduced. The rSEB-immunized mice showed significant titers of anti-SEB IgA and IgG in stools and serum, respectively. Both recombinant L. lactis strains were able to elicit cellular or systemic immune responses in mice, with no significant difference if rSEB was produced in its cytoplasmic or secreted form. However, recombinant L. lactis expressing the cytoplasmic rSEB increased the survival rate of the challenged mice by 43%. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show the vaccine efficacy of L. lactis carrying an attenuated SEB, in a murine model, following lethal S. aureus challenge.

Leukotriene B4 mediates neutrophil migration induced by heme.

High concentrations of free heme found during hemolytic events or cell damage leads to inflammation, characterized by neutrophil recruitment and production of reactive oxygen species, through mechanisms not yet elucidated. In this study, we provide evidence that heme-induced neutrophilic inflammation depends on endogenous activity of the macrophage-derived lipid mediator leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)). In vivo, heme-induced neutrophil recruitment into the peritoneal cavity of mice was attenuated by pretreatment with 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) inhibitors and leukotriene B(4) receptor 1 (BLT1) receptor antagonists as well as in 5-LO knockout (5-LO(-/-)) mice. Heme administration in vivo increased peritoneal levels of LTB(4) prior to and during neutrophil recruitment. Evidence that LTB(4) was synthesized by resident macrophages, but not mast cells, included the following: 1) immuno-localization of heme-induced LTB(4) was compartmentalized exclusively within lipid bodies of resident macrophages; 2) an increase in the macrophage population enhanced heme-induced neutrophil migration; 3) depletion of resident mast cells did not affect heme-induced LTB(4) production or neutrophil influx; 4) increased levels of LTB(4) were found in heme-stimulated peritoneal cavities displaying increased macrophage numbers; and 5) in vitro, heme was able to activate directly macrophages to synthesize LTB(4). Our findings uncover a crucial role of LTB(4) in neutrophil migration induced by heme and suggest that beneficial therapeutic outcomes could be achieved by targeting the 5-LO pathway in the treatment of inflammation associated with hemolytic processes.