Longitudinal variation in the nutritional quality of basal food sources and its effect on invertebrates and fish in subalpine rivers.

There is growing recognition of the importance of food quality over quantity for aquatic consumers. In streams and rivers, most previous studies considered this primarily in terms of the quality of terrestrial leaf litter and importance of microbial conditioning. However, many recent studies suggest that algae are a more nutritional food source for riverine consumers than leaf litter. To date, few studies have quantified longitudinal shifts in the nutritional quality of basal food resources in river ecosystems and how these may affect consumers. We conducted a field investigation in a subalpine river ecosystem in Austria to investigate longitudinal variations in diet quality of basal food sources (submerged leaves and periphyton) and diet source dependence of stream consumers (invertebrate grazers, shredders, filterers and predators, and fish). Fatty acid (FA) profiles of basal food sources and their consumers were measured. Our results indicate systematic differences between the FA profiles of terrestrial leaves and aquatic biota, that is periphyton, invertebrates and fish. Submerged leaves contained very low proportions of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), which were conversely rich in aquatic biota. While the FA composition of submerged leaves remained similar among sites, the LC-PUFAs of periphyton increased longitudinally, which was associated with increasing nutrients from upstream to downstream. Longitudinal variations in periphyton LC-PUFAs were reflected in the LC-PUFAs of invertebrate grazers and shredders, and further tracked by invertebrate predators and fish. However, brown trout Salmo trutta contained a large proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6ω3), a LC-PUFA almost entirely missing in basal sources and invertebrates. The fish accumulated eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5ω3) from invertebrate prey and may use this FA to synthesize DHA. Our results provide a nutritional perspective for river food web studies, emphasizing the importance of algal resources to consumer somatic growth and the need to account for the longitudinal shifts in the quality of these basal resources.

An assessment of assumptions and uncertainty in deuterium-based estimates of terrestrial subsidies to aquatic consumers.

The deuterium ratio (2 H/1 H) in tissue is often used to estimate terrestrial subsidies to aquatic consumers because of strongly differentiated values between terrestrial and aquatic primary producers. However, quantitative deuterium-based analyses of terrestrial resource assimilation are highly dependent on several poorly defined assumptions. We explored the sensitivity of these estimates to assumptions regarding environmental water contributions to consumer deuterium content (ω) and algal photosynthetic hydrogen discrimination (εH ). We also tested whether 13 C/12 C and 2 H/1 H-based estimates of terrestrial resource assimilation give similar outcomes. The average of the 12 experiments that have directly estimated proportional contributions of environmental water to consumer tissue 2 H/1 H was 0.27 ± 0.11 (mean ± SD), with similar values for invertebrates and fish. Conversely, of the 28 field studies that have used 2 H/1 H to characterize aquatic food webs, all but one assume a value that is less than our current best estimate, usually substantially less. A reanalysis of the raw data from four recent case studies indicates the calculated terrestrial contribution to aquatic consumers is extremely sensitive to this assumption. When the authors' original assumptions were used (i.e., ω = 0.16 ± 0.05), the estimated proportional contribution of terrestrial resources to aquatic consumers (θT ) averaged 29 ± 17%, and when ω = 0.27 was used the average estimated assimilation of allochthonous resources was ≈0.00. A compilation of published photosynthetic hydrogen discrimination values for microalgae averaged εH  = -150 ± 27‰ (SD, n = 99), and a sensitivity analysis showed the outcomes of these calculations were also strongly influenced by uncertainty in εH . There was no statistical association between 13 C/12 C and 2 H/1 H-based estimates of terrestrial subsidies (r = -0.12, n = 274). This analysis indicates that the assumptions in deuterium-based estimates of terrestrial resource assimilation are highly influential but poorly constrained; therefore, the impact of these assumptions on calculated outputs must be carefully assessed and thoroughly reported. Due to the highly uncertain assumptions inherent in deuterium-based analyses, we urge much more caution when using this approach to estimate terrestrial subsidies to consumers in aquatic ecosystems.

Feeding strategies for the acquisition of high-quality food sources in stream macroinvertebrates: Collecting, integrating, and mixed feeding.

Aquatic macroinvertebrates play an important functional role in energy transfer in food webs, linking basal food sources to upper trophic levels that include fish, birds, and humans. However, the trophic coupling of nutritional quality between macroinvertebrates and their food sources is still poorly understood. We conducted a field study in subalpine streams in Austria to investigate how the nutritional quality (measured by long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, LC-PUFAs) in macroinvertebrates changes relative to their basal food sources. Samples of macroinvertebrates, periphyton, and leaves were collected from 17 streams in July and October 2016 and their fatty acid (FA) composition was analyzed. Periphyton FA varied strongly with time and space, and their trophic effect on macroinvertebrate FA differed among functional feeding groups. The match between periphyton FA and macroinvertebrate FA decreased with increasing trophic levels, but LC-PUFA content increased with each trophic step from periphyton to grazers and finally predators. Macroinvertebrates fed selectively on, assimilated, and/or actively controlled their LC-PUFA, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20 : 5ω3) relative to their basal food sources in the face of spatial and temporal changes. Grazer FA profiles reflected periphyton FA with relatively good fidelity, and especially their EPA feeding strategy was primarily linked to periphyton FA variation across seasons. In contrast, shredders appeared to preferentially assimilate more EPA over other FA, which was determined by the availability of high-quality food over seasons. Predators may more actively control their LC-PUFA distribution with respect to different quality foods and showed less fidelity to the basal FA profiles in plants and prey. Overall, grazers and shredders showed relatively good fidelity to food FA profiles and performed as both "collectors" and "integrators" for LC-PUFA requirements across seasons, while predators at higher trophic levels were more "integrators" with added metabolic complexity leading to somewhat more divergent FA profiles. These results are potentially applicable for other aquatic consumers in freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Quantifying learning in biotracer studies.

Mixing models have become requisite tools for analyzing biotracer data, most commonly stable isotope ratios, to infer dietary contributions of multiple sources to a consumer. However, Bayesian mixing models will always return a result that defaults to their priors if the data poorly resolve the source contributions, and thus, their interpretation requires caution. We describe an application of information theory to quantify how much has been learned about a consumer's diet from new biotracer data. We apply the approach to two example data sets. We find that variation in the isotope ratios of sources limits the precision of estimates for the consumer's diet, even with a large number of consumer samples. Thus, the approach which we describe is a type of power analysis that uses a priori simulations to find an optimal sample size. Biotracer data are fundamentally limited in their ability to discriminate consumer diets. We suggest that other types of data, such as gut content analysis, must be used as prior information in model fitting, to improve model learning about the consumer's diet. Information theory may also be used to identify optimal sampling protocols in situations where sampling of consumers is limited due to expense or ethical concerns.

Critical Uncertainties and Gaps in the Environmental- and Social-Impact Assessment of the Proposed Interoceanic Canal through Nicaragua.

The proposed interoceanic canal will connect the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean, traversing Lake Nicaragua, the major freshwater reservoir in Central America. If completed, the canal would be the largest infrastructure-related excavation project on Earth. In November 2015, the Nicaraguan government approved an environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) for the canal. A group of international experts participated in a workshop organized by the Academy of Sciences of Nicaragua to review this ESIA. The group concluded that the ESIA does not meet international standards; essential information is lacking regarding the potential impacts on the lake, freshwater and marine environments, and biodiversity. The ESIA presents an inadequate assessment of natural hazards and socioeconomic disruptions. The panel recommends that work on the canal project be suspended until an appropriate ESIA is completed. The project should be resumed only if it is demonstrated to be economically feasible, environmentally acceptable, and socially beneficial.

Geomorphology controls the trophic base of stream food webs in a boreal watershed .

Abstract. Physical attributes of rivers control the quantity and quality of energy sources available to consumers, but it remains untested whether geomorphic conditions of whole watersheds affect the assimilation of different resources by stream organisms. We compared the fatty acid (FA) compositions of two invertebrate taxa (caddisflies, mayflies) collected from 16 streams in southwest Alaska, USA, to assess how assimilation of terrestrial organic matter (OM) and algae varied across a landscape gradient in watershed features. We found relatively higher assimilation of algae in high-gradient streams compared with low-gradient streams, and the opposite pattern for assimilation of terrestrial OM and microbes. The strength of these patterns was more pronounced for caddisflies than mayflies. Invertebrates from low-gradient watersheds had FA markers unique to methane-oxidizing bacteria and sulfate-reducing microbes, indicating a contribution of anaerobic pathways to primary consumers. Diversity of FA composition was highest in watersheds of intermediate slopes that contain both significant terrestrial inputs as well as high algal biomass. By controlling the accumulation rate and processing of terrestrial OM, watershed features influence the energetic base of food webs in boreal streams.

Scientists raise alarms about fast tracking of transoceanic canal through Nicaragua.

Seeking economic growth and job creation to tackle the nation's extreme poverty, the Nicaraguan government awarded a concession to build an interoceanic canal and associated projects to a recently formed Hong Kong based company with no track record or related expertise. This concession was awarded without a bidding process and in advance of any feasibility, socio-economic or environmental impact assessments; construction has begun without this information. The 278 km long interoceanic canal project may result in significant environmental and social impairments. Of particular concern are damage to Lake Cocibolca, a unique freshwater tropical lake and Central America's main freshwater reservoir; damage to regional biodiversity and ecosystems; and socio-economic impacts. Concerned about the possibly irreparable damage to the environment and to native communities, conservationists and the scientific community at large are urging the Nicaraguan government to devise and reveal an action plan to address and mitigate the possible negative repercussions of this interoceanic canal and associated projects. Critical research needs for preparation of a comprehensive benefit-cost analysis for this megaproject are presented.

Differing Daphnia magna assimilation efficiencies for terrestrial, bacterial, and algal carbon and fatty acids.

There is considerable interest in the pathways by which carbon and growth-limiting elemental and biochemical nutrients are supplied to upper trophic levels. Fatty acids and sterols are among the most important molecules transferred across the plant-animal interface of food webs. In lake ecosystems, in addition to phytoplankton, bacteria and terrestrial organic matter are potential trophic resources for zooplankton, especially in those receiving high terrestrial organic matter inputs. We therefore tested carbon, nitrogen, and fatty acid assimilation by the crustacean Daphnia magna when consuming these resources. We fed Daphnia with monospecific diets of high-quality (Cryptomonas marssonii) and intermediate-quality (Chlamydomonas sp. and Scenedesmus gracilis) phytoplankton species, two heterotrophic bacterial strains, and particles from the globally dispersed riparian grass, Phragmites australis, representing terrestrial particulate organic carbon (t-POC). We also fed Daphnia with various mixed diets, and compared Daphnia fatty acid, carbon, and nitrogen assimilation across treatments. Our results suggest that bacteria were nutritionally inadequate diets because they lacked sterols and polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 (omega-3 and omega-6) fatty acids (PUFAs). However, Daphnia were able to effectively use carbon and nitrogen from Actinobacteria, if their basal needs for essential fatty acids and sterols were met by phytoplankton. In contrast to bacteria, t-POC contained sterols and omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, but only at 22%, 1.4%, and 0.2% of phytoplankton levels, respectively, which indicated that t-POC food quality was especially restricted with regard to omega-3 PUFAs. Our results also showed higher assimilation of carbon than fatty acids from t-POC and bacteria into Daphnia, based on stable-isotope and fatty acids analysis, respectively. A relatively high (>20%) assimilation of carbon and fatty acids from t-POC was observed only when the proportion of t-POC was >60%, but due to low PUFA to carbon ratio, these conditions yielded poor Daphnia growth. Because of lower assimilation for carbon, nitrogen, and fatty acids from t-POC relative to diets of bacteria mixed with phytoplankton, we conclude that the microbial food web, supported by phytoplankton, and not direct t-POC consumption, may support zooplankton production. Our results suggest that terrestrial particulate organic carbon poorly supports upper trophic levels of the lakes.

The Implications of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) Fatty Acid Profiles for Their Thiamine Status.

Thiamine deficiency is an ongoing issue across the Northern Hemisphere, causing reproductive failure in multiple salmonid populations. In the Baltic Sea, a large brackish water system in northern Europe, previous research has suggested that this deficiency is associated with lipid-rich diets with a high proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3). The mechanism proposed is that a diet abundant in highly unsaturated fatty acids, such as DHA, depletes thiamine as an antioxidant defense in adult salmonids, rather than allocating thiamine to the offspring. In light of this existing hypothesis, we here explore the relationship between diet history and the related fatty acid (FA), profiles, and thiamine status of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in three systems: the Baltic Sea, the North Atlantic Ocean, and Lake Vänern. Atlantic salmon inhabiting each system is known to have unique feeding histories and thiamine status. Our results showed that despite extensive sampling effort and distinct FA profiles, indicative of their diverse diets, there were no correlations between any FAs, including DHA, and the thiamine status of these populations. This finding does not support the above-mentioned hypothesis that diets rich in easily oxidized FAs would lead to lower thiamine concentrations in salmon tissues. Additionally, we found that changes in the salmon FA profiles throughout their life cycle are consistent for both low-thiamine populations from the Baltic Sea and medium-thiamine populations from North Atlantic Ocean, suggesting that these changes might not be involved in thiamine deficiency development.

Assessment of the impact of dams on aquatic food webs using stable isotopes: Current progress and future challenges.

Dams have disrupted natural river systems worldwide and although population and community level effects on aquatic biota have been well documented, food web responses remain poorly understood and difficult to characterize. The application of stable isotope analysis (SIA) provides a means to assess the effect of dams on food webs. Here we review the effect of dams on aquatic food webs using SIA, aiming to detect knowledge gaps in the field of dam impacts on aquatic food webs and propose a conceptual framework to help formulate hypotheses about dam impacts on food webs guided by food web theory. Dams can affect aquatic food webs via two pathways: a bottom-up pathway with altered basal food sources and their transfer to consumers through changes in flow, nutrients, temperature and sediment, and a top-down pathway with consumer species composition altered mainly through habitat fragmentation and related physiochemical changes. Taking these mechanisms into consideration, the impact of dams on food web attributes derived from SIA was evaluated. These studies generally apply mixing models to determine how dams alter the dominant carbon sources supporting food webs, use δ15N to examine how dams alter food-chain length, or use Layman metrics of isotope variability to assess niche changes for invertebrate and fish assemblages. Most studies compare the patterns of SIA metrics spatially (e.g. upstream vs reservoir vs downstream of dams; regulated vs unregulated rivers) and temporally (before vs after dam construction), without explicit hypotheses and/or links to theoretical concepts of food webs. We propose several steps to make SIA studies of dam impacts more rigorous and enhance their potential for producing novel insights. Future studies should quantify the shape and strength of the effect of dams on SIA-measured food web response, be conducted at larger temporal and spatial scales (particularly along the river longitudinal continuum and the lateral connected ecosystems (e.g., floodplains)), and consider effects of dams on food web resilience and tipping points.

Phytoplankton, not allochthonous carbon, sustains herbivorous zooplankton production.

Terrestrial organic matter inputs have long been thought to play an important role in aquatic food web dynamics. Results from recent whole lake (13)C addition experiments suggest terrestrial particulate organic carbon (t-POC) inputs account for a disproportionate portion of zooplankton production. For example, several studies concluded that although t-POC only represented approximately 20% of the flux of particulate carbon available to herbivorous zooplankton, this food source accounted for approximately 50% of the C incorporated by zooplankton. We tested the direct dietary impact of t-POC (from the leaves of riparian vegetation) and various phytoplankton on Daphnia magna somatic growth, reproduction, growth efficiency, and lipid composition. By itself, t-POC was a very poor quality resource compared to cryptophytes, diatoms, and chlorophytes, but t-POC had similar food quality compared to cyanobacteria. Small additions of high quality Cryptomonas ozolinii to t-POC-dominated diets greatly increased Daphnia growth and reproduction. When offered alone, t-POC resulted in a Daphnia growth efficiency of 5 +/- 1%, whereas 100% Cryptomonas and Scenedesmus obliquus diets resulted in growth efficiencies of 46 +/- 8% (+/- SD) and 36 +/- 3%, respectively. When offered in a 50:50 mixed diet with Cryptomonas or Scenedesmus, the t-POC fraction resulted in a partial growth efficiency of 22 +/- 9% and 15 +/- 6%, respectively. Daphnia that obtained 80% of their available food from t-POC assimilated 84% of their fatty acids from the phytoplankton component of their diet. Overall, our results suggest Daphnia selectively allocate phytoplankton-derived POC and lipids to enhance somatic growth and reproduction, while t-POC makes a minor contribution to zooplankton production.

Combined effects of eutrophication and warming on polyunsaturated fatty acids in complex phytoplankton communities: A mesocosm experiment.

Climate change and eutrophication are among the main stressors of shallow freshwater ecosystems, and their effects on phytoplankton community structure and primary production have been studied extensively. However, their combined effects on the algal production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), specifically, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are currently unresolved. Moreover, the proximate reasons for changes in phytoplankton EPA and DHA concentrations are unclear, i.e., the relative importance of ecological (changes in the community composition) vs. ecophysiological (within taxa changes in EPA and DHA levels) factors. We investigated the responses of phytoplankton EPA and DHA concentrations to warming (IPCC climate scenario) and nutrient additions in mesocosms which had been run continuously at varying temperature and nutrient levels for 15 years prior to this study. Nutrient treatment had a significant effect on phytoplankton EPA and DHA concentrations and about 59 % of the variation in EPA and DHA concentrations could be explained by changes in the phytoplankton community structure. Increased biomass of diatoms corresponded with high EPA and DHA concentrations, while cyanobacteria/chlorophyte dominated mesocosm had low EPA and DHA concentrations. Warming had only a marginal effect on the EPA and DHA concentrations in these mesocosms. However, a significant interaction was observed with warming and N:P ratio. Our findings indicate that direct nutrient/temperature effects on algal physiology and PUFA metabolism were negligible and the changes in EPA and DHA concentrations were mostly related to the phytoplankton community structure and biomass. These results also imply that in shallow temperate lakes eutrophication, leading to increased dominance of cyanobacteria, will probably be a greater threat to phytoplankton EPA and DHA production than warming. EPA and DHA are nutritionally important for upper trophic level consumers and decreased production may impair secondary production.

Use of fatty acid analysis to determine dispersal of caspian terns in the Columbia River Basin, USA.

Lethal control, which has been used to reduce local abundances of animals in conflict with humans or with endangered species, may not achieve management goals if animal movement is not considered. In populations with emigration and immigration, lethal control may induce compensatory immigration, if the source of attraction remains unchanged. Within the Columbia River Basin (Washington, U.S.A.), avian predators forage at dams because dams tend to reduce rates of emigration of juvenile salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.), artificially concentrating these prey. We used differences in fatty acid profiles between Caspian Terns (Hydroprogne caspia) at coastal and inland breeding colonies and terns culled by a lethal control program at a mid-Columbia River dam to infer dispersal patterns. We modeled the rate of loss of fatty acid biomarkers, which are fatty acids that can be traced to a single prey species or groups of species, to infer whether and when terns foraging at dams had emigrated from the coast. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling showed that coastal terns had high levels of C(20) and C(22) monounsaturated fatty acids, whereas fatty acids of inland breeders were high in C18:3n3, C20:4n6, and C22:5n3. Models of the rate of loss of fatty acid showed that approximately 60% of the terns collected at Rock Island Dam were unlikely to have bred successfully at local (inland) sites, suggesting that terns foraging at dams come from an extensive area. Fatty acid biomarkers may provide accurate information about patterns of dispersal in animal populations and may be extremely valuable in cases where populations differ demonstrably in prey base.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish tissues more closely resemble algal than terrestrial diet sources.

The River Continuum Concept implies that consumers in headwater streams have greater dietary access to terrestrial basal resources, but recent studies have highlighted the dietary importance of high-quality algae. Algae provide consumers with physiologically important omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). However, terrestrial plants and most benthic stream algae lack the long-chain (LC) n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), which is essential for neural development in fish and other vertebrates. We sampled subalpine streams to investigate how the PUFA composition of neural (brain and eyes), muscle, and liver tissues of freshwater fish is related to their potential diets (macroinvertebrates, epilithon, fresh and conditioned terrestrial leaves). The PUFA composition of consumers was more similar to epilithon than to terrestrial leaves. Storage lipids of eyes most closely resembled dietary PUFA (aquatic invertebrates and algae). However, DHA and arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6) were not directly available in the diet but abundant in organs. This implies that algal PUFA were selectively retained or were produced internally via enzymatic PUFA conversion by aquatic consumers. This field study demonstrates the nutritional importance of algal PUFA for neural organs in aquatic consumers of headwater regions.

The effects of seston lipids on zooplankton fatty acid composition in Lake Washington, Washington, USA.

We collected suspended particulate matter (seston) and zooplankton samples from Lake Washington in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A., over a 10-month period to investigate the effects of food availability on zooplankton fatty acid (FA) composition. The percentage of nutritionally critical omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the seston varied from 8% of the FA pool in midsummer to 30% during the spring diatom bloom. Zooplankton accumulated much higher percentages omega3 PUFA than was available in the seston. In particular, cladocerans preferentially accumulated eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5omega3), copepods accumulated docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6omega3), and both copepods and cladocerans accumulated 18 carbon chain omega3 PUFAs (C18 omega3). By comparison, the FA of zooplanktivorous juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) were strongly dominated by EPA (12.5% +/- 2.1%) and DHA (28.2% +/- 8.7%). The saturated fatty acid and the arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4omega6) composition of Diaptomus ashlandi was strongly (r2 = 0.76) and moderately (r2 = 0.54) correlated with the prevalence of these FAs in the seston. Furthermore, the DHA content of Diaptomus was moderately correlated with the seston's DHA content (r2 = 0.45) and very strongly correlated with seston EPA (r2 = 0.89). Since EPA was the most prevalent PUFA in the seston and DHA was the most prevalent PUFA in Diaptomus, these results suggest that Diaptomus may synthesize DHA from the EPA in their food. In general, zooplankton species in Lake Washington were strongly enriched with those FA molecules that are most physiologically important for fish nutrition (i.e., ARA, EPA, and DHA), indicating a clear mechanism by which changes in seston composition influence fisheries ecology.

Unsaturated fatty acid content in seston and tropho-dynamic coupling in lakes.

Determining the factors that control food web interactions is a key issue in ecology. The empirical relationship between nutrient loading (total phosphorus) and phytoplankton standing stock (chlorophyll a) in lakes was described about 30 years ago and is central for managing surface water quality. The efficiency with which biomass and energy are transferred through the food web and sustain the production of higher trophic levels (such as fish) declines with nutrient loading and system productivity, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here we show that in seston (fine particles in water) during summer, specific omega3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega3-PUFAs), which are important for zooplankton, are significantly correlated to the trophic status of the lake. The omega3-PUFAs octadecatetraenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid, but not alpha-linolenic acid, decrease on a double-logarithmic scale with increasing total phosphorus. By combining the empirical relationship between EPA-to-carbon content and total phosphorus with functional models relating EPA-to-carbon content to the growth and egg production of daphnids, we predict secondary production for this key consumer. Thus, the decreasing efficiency in energy transfer with increasing lake productivity can be explained by differences in omega3-PUFA-associated food quality at the plant-animal interface.

The influence of alum based nutrient removal process on the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of phosphorus in the paper processing facility effluent.

This study examined the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the phosphorus (P) in the effluents from a paper processing facility before and after an alum based P removal process. The alum based treatment process reduced effluent total P concentrations from an average of 230 ± 103 (±1 SD) µg L-1 to an average of 36 ± 10 µg L-1. Ultra-filtration showed the treatment process shifted the P in these effluents from being 75 ± 9% particulate pre-removal to being 52 ± 0% dissolved and 27 ± 1% colloidal after the Trident P removal process. The alum removal process also reduced the fraction of reactive P in the dissolved and colloidal pools from 55% to 14%, respectively. Algal phosphorus bioavailability (BAP) bioassays showed the BAP of these effluents averaged 12 ± 9% of total P. Algal dissolved P uptake experiments indicated ≈ 30% of the dissolved P was converted to particulate P (which usually indicates algal uptake) during 21-day bioassays. However, treatments without algae indicated >80% of the apparent algal uptake may have been due to colloidal P forming flocs via physical-chemical processes. These analyses indicate the phosphorus contained in this paper processing facility's effluents had much lower bioavailability than the P in typical municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents.

Fatty acids as dietary biomarkers in mangrove ecosystems: Current status and future perspective.

The paradigm that mangrove carbon supports secondary production in mangrove and adjacent habitats has been debated in recent years. Fatty acids (FA) are one of the classic biomarkers that have been frequently applied to track mangrove carbon pathways and assess trophic relationships. However, most previous studies did not evaluate the validity, potential and limitations of FA as biomarkers. The function and metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated FA (LC-PUFA) in mangrove fauna have been largely ignored, and overlapping single FA biomarkers were widely used to infer dietary contributions from different sources. This review aims to systematically analyze and assess the application of FA biomarkers to dietary analyses in mangrove ecosystems, with a focus on basal food sources and their consumers. Our results show that basal food sources have distinctive FA profiles, with leaves and litter rich in alpha-linolenic acids (ALA, 18:3n-3), microphytobenthos rich in eicosapentaenoic acids (EPA, 20:5n-3) and suspended particulate organic matter (SPOM), or phytoplankton rich in docosahexaenoic acids (DHA, 22:6n-3). Most consumers contain high contents of LC-PUFA, particularly DHA and EPA, but very low levels of long-chain saturated FA (e.g., 22:0, 24:0, 26:0, 28:0), a biomarker of mangrove leaf litter. Bacterial FA biomarkers are present in all consumers. Four possible carbon pathways are identified and examined, i.e., benthic feeding on mangrove leaves and litter, benthic feeding on microphytobenthos, pelagic feeding on SPOM, and benthic and pelagic feeding on bacteria. Each pathway plays a different nutritional role for consumers, together providing a diversity of carbon sources. We recommend that in future (a) a wide range of basal diet sources should be sampled rather than just "visible" sources; (b) the unique FA characteristics of each diet source and consumer should be recognized with a focus on overall FA profiles and the application of multivariate statistics; (c) controlled feeding trials should be considered for keystone or functionally important consumers before selecting certain FA biomarkers to infer animal diets, and; (d) compound-specific stable isotope analysis should be applied to provide more insights into trophic relationships as well as the FA metabolic pathways in consumers.

Preferential retention of algal carbon in benthic invertebrates: Stable isotope and fatty acid evidence from an outdoor flume experiment.

According to the River Continuum Concept, headwater streams are richer in allochthonous (e.g. terrestrial leaves) than autochthonous (e.g. algae) sources of organic matter for consumers. However, compared to algae, leaf litter is of lower food quality, particularly ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), and would constrain the somatic growth, maintenance, and reproduction of stream invertebrates. It may be thus assumed that shredders, such as Gammarus, receive lower quality diets than grazers, e.g. Ecdyonurus, that typically feed on algae.The objective of this study was to assess the provision of dietary PUFA from leaf litter and algae to the shredder Gammarus and the grazer Ecdyonurus. Three different diets (algae, terrestrial leaves, and an algae-leaf litter mix) were supplied to these macroinvertebrates in a flume experiment for 2 weeks. To differentiate how diet sources were retained in these consumers, algae were isotopically labelled with 13C.Both consumers became enriched with 13C in all treatments, demonstrating that both assimilated algae. For Gammarus, n-3 PUFA increased, whereas n-6 PUFA stayed constant. By contrast, the n-3 PUFA content of Ecdyonurus decreased as a consequence of declining algal supply.Results from compound-specific stable isotope analysis provided evidence that the long-chain n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in both consumers was more enriched in 13C than the short-chain n-3 PUFA α-linolenic acid, suggesting that EPA was taken up directly from algae and not from heterotrophic biofilms on leaf litter. Both consumers depended on algae as their carbon and EPA source and retained their EPA from high-quality algae.

Evaluating coral trophic strategies using fatty acid composition and indices.

The ecological success of shallow water reef-building corals has been linked to the symbiosis between the coral host and its dinoflagellate symbionts (herein 'symbionts'). As mixotrophs, symbiotic corals depend on nutrients 1) transferred from their photosynthetic symbionts (autotrophy) and 2) acquired by host feeding on particulate organic resources (heterotrophy). However, coral species differ in the extent to which they depend on heterotrophy for nutrition and these differences are typically poorly defined. Here, a multi-tracer fatty acid approach was used to evaluate the trophic strategies of three species of common reef-building coral (Galaxea fascicularis, Pachyseris speciosa, and Pocillopora verrucosa) whose trophic strategies had previously been identified using carbon stable isotopes. The composition and various indices of fatty acids were compared to examine the relative contribution of symbiont autotrophy and host heterotrophy in coral energy acquisition. A linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was used to estimate the contribution of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) derived from various potential sources to the coral hosts. The total fatty acid composition and fatty acid indices revealed differences between the more heterotrophic (P. verrucosa) and more autotrophic (P. speciosa) coral hosts, with the coral host G. fascicularis showing overlap with the other two species and greater variability overall. For the more heterotrophic P. verrucosa, the fatty acid indices and LDA results both indicated a greater proportion of copepod-derived fatty acids compared to the other coral species. Overall, the LDA estimated that PUFA derived from particulate resources (e.g., copepods and diatoms) comprised a greater proportion of coral host PUFA in contrast to the lower proportion of symbiont-derived PUFA. These estimates provide insight into the importance of heterotrophy in coral nutrition, especially in productive reef systems. The study supports carbon stable isotope results and demonstrates the utility of fatty acid analyses for exploring the trophic strategies of reef-building corals.