NECAB2 is an endosomal protein important for striatal function.

Synaptic signaling depends on ATP generated by mitochondria. Dysfunctional mitochondria shift the redox balance towards a more oxidative environment. Due to extensive connectivity, the striatum is especially vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction. We found that neuronal calcium-binding protein 2 (NECAB2) plays a role in striatal function and mitochondrial homeostasis. NECAB2 is a predominantly endosomal striatal protein which partially colocalizes with mitochondria. This colocalization is enhanced by mild oxidative stress. Global knockout of Necab2 in the mouse results in increased superoxide levels, increased DNA oxidation and reduced levels of the antioxidant glutathione which correlates with an altered mitochondrial shape and function. Striatal mitochondria from Necab2 knockout mice are more abundant and smaller and characterized by a reduced spare capacity suggestive of intrinsic uncoupling respectively mitochondrial dysfunction. In line with this, we also found an altered stress-induced interaction of endosomes with mitochondria in Necab2 knockout striatal cultures. The predominance of dysfunctional mitochondria and the pro-oxidative redox milieu correlates with a loss of striatal synapses and behavioral changes characteristic of striatal dysfunction like reduced motivation and altered sensory gating. Together this suggests an involvement of NECAB2 in an endosomal pathway of mitochondrial stress response important for striatal function.

Chronic social stress disrupts the intracellular redistribution of brain hexokinase 3 induced by shifts in peripheral glucose levels.

Chronic stress has the potential to impair health and may increase the vulnerability for psychiatric disorders. Emerging evidence suggests that specific neurometabolic dysfunctions play a role herein. In mice, chronic social defeat (CSD) stress reduces cerebral glucose uptake despite hyperglycemia. We hypothesized that this metabolic decoupling would be reflected by changes in contact sites between mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, important intracellular nutrient sensors, and signaling hubs. We thus analyzed the proteome of their biochemical counterparts, mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) from whole brain tissue obtained from CSD and control mice. This revealed a lack of the glucose-metabolizing enzyme hexokinase 3 (HK3) in MAMs from CSD mice. In controls, HK3 protein abundance in MAMs and also in striatal synaptosomes correlated positively with peripheral blood glucose levels, but this connection was lost in CSD. We conclude that the ability of HK3 to traffic to sites of need, such as MAMs or synapses, is abolished upon CSD and surmise that this contributes to a cellular dysfunction instigated by chronic stress. KEY MESSAGES : Chronic social defeat (CSD) alters brain glucose metabolism CSD depletes hexokinase 3 (HK3) from mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) CSD results in loss of positive correlation between blood glucose and HK3 in MAMs and synaptosomes.

GDAP1 loss of function inhibits the mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex by altering the actin cytoskeleton.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease 4A is an autosomal-recessive polyneuropathy caused by mutations of ganglioside-induced differentiation-associated protein 1 (GDAP1), a putative glutathione transferase, which affects mitochondrial shape and alters cellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Here, we identify the underlying mechanism. We found that patient-derived motoneurons and GDAP1 knockdown SH-SY5Y cells display two phenotypes: more tubular mitochondria and a metabolism characterized by glutamine dependence and fewer cytosolic lipid droplets. GDAP1 interacts with the actin-depolymerizing protein Cofilin-1 and beta-tubulin in a redox-dependent manner, suggesting a role for actin signaling. Consistently, GDAP1 loss causes less F-actin close to mitochondria, which restricts mitochondrial localization of the fission factor dynamin-related protein 1, instigating tubularity. GDAP1 silencing also disrupts mitochondria-ER contact sites. These changes result in lower mitochondrial Ca2+ levels and inhibition of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, explaining the metabolic changes upon GDAP1 loss of function. Together, our findings reconcile GDAP1-associated phenotypes and implicate disrupted actin signaling in CMT4A pathophysiology.

Prevention of ferroptosis in acute scenarios: an in vitro study with classic and novel anti-ferroptotic compounds.

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of cell death, has critical roles in diverse pathologies. Data on the temporal events mediating the prevention of ferroptosis are lacking. Focused on temporal aspects of cytotoxicity/protection, we investigated the effects of classic (Fer-1) and novel [2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(2-thienylthio)phenol (C1) and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(2-thienylselano)phenol (C2)] anti-ferroptotic agents against RSL3-, BSO- or glutamate-induced ferroptosis in cultured HT22 neuronal cell line, comparing their effects with those of the antioxidants trolox, ebselen and probucol. Glutamate (5 mM), BSO (25 µM) and RSL3 (50 nM) decreased approximately 40% of cell viability at 24 h. At these concentrations, none of these agents changed cell viability at 6 h after treatments; RSL3 increased lipoperoxidation from 6 h, although BSO and glutamate only did so at 12 h after treatments. At similar conditions, BSO and glutamate (but not RSL3) decreased GSH levels at 6 h after treatments. Fer-1, C1 and C2 exhibited similar protective effects against glutamate-, BSO- and RSL3-cytotoxicity, but this protection was limited when the protective agents were delivered to cells at time-points characterized by increased lipoperoxidation (but not glutathione depletion). Compared to Fer-1, C1 and C2, the anti-ferroptotic effects of trolox, ebselen and probucol were minor. Cytoprotective effects were not associated with direct antioxidant efficacies. These results indicate that the temporal window is central in affecting the efficacies of anti-ferroptotic drugs in acute scenarios; ferroptosis prevention is improbable when significant rates of lipoperoxidation were already achieved. C1 and C2 displayed remarkable cytoprotective effects, representing a promising new class of compounds to treat ferroptosis-related pathologies.

Redox Modifications of Proteins of the Mitochondrial Fusion and Fission Machinery.

Mitochondrial fusion and fission tailors the mitochondrial shape to changes in cellular homeostasis. Players of this process are the mitofusins, which regulate fusion of the outer mitochondrial membrane, and the fission protein DRP1. Upon specific stimuli, DRP1 translocates to the mitochondria, where it interacts with its receptors FIS1, MFF, and MID49/51. Another fission factor of clinical relevance is GDAP1. Here, we identify and discuss cysteine residues of these proteins that are conserved in phylogenetically distant organisms and which represent potential sites of posttranslational redox modifications. We reveal that worms and flies possess only a single mitofusin, which in vertebrates diverged into MFN1 and MFN2. All mitofusins contain four conserved cysteines in addition to cysteine 684 in MFN2, a site involved in mitochondrial hyperfusion. DRP1 and FIS1 are also evolutionarily conserved but only DRP1 contains four conserved cysteine residues besides cysteine 644, a specific site of nitrosylation. MFF and MID49/51 are only present in the vertebrate lineage. GDAP1 is missing in the nematode genome and contains no conserved cysteine residues. Our analysis suggests that the function of the evolutionarily oldest proteins of the mitochondrial fusion and fission machinery, the mitofusins and DRP1 but not FIS1, might be altered by redox modifications.

Bax inhibitor-1 deficiency leads to obesity by increasing Ca2+-dependent insulin secretion.

Transmembrane BAX inhibitor motif containing 6 (TMBIM6), also known as Bax inhibitor-1, is an evolutionarily conserved protein involved in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function. TMBIM6 is an ER Ca2+ leak channel and its deficiency enhances susceptibility to ER stress due to inhibition of the ER stress sensor IRE1α. It was previously shown that TMBIM6 overexpression improves glucose metabolism and that TMBIM6 knockout mice develop obesity. We here examined the metabolic alterations underlying the obese phenotype and subjected TMBIM6 knockout mice to indirect calorimetry and euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic tests with stable isotope dilution to gauge tissue-specific insulin sensitivity. This demonstrated no changes in heat production, food intake, activity or hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity. TMBIM6 knockout mice, however, featured a higher glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in vivo as assessed by the hyperglycemic clamp test and hepatic steatosis. This coincided with profound changes in glucose-mediated Ca2+ regulation in isolated pancreatic ß cells and increased levels of IRE1α levels but no differences in downstream effects of IRE1α like increased Xbp1 mRNA splicing or Ire1-dependent decay of insulin mRNA in the pancreas. We therefore conclude that lack of TMBIM6 does not affect insulin sensitivity but leads to hyperinsulinemia, which serves to explain the weight gain. TMBIM6-mediated metabolic alterations are mainly caused by its role as a Ca2+ release channel in the ER. KEY MESSAGES: TMBIM6-/- leads to obesity and hepatic steatosis. Food intake and energy expenditure are not changed in TMBIM6-/- mice. No changes in insulin resistance in TMBIM6-/- mice. Increased insulin secretion caused by altered calcium dynamics in ß cells.

New Probucol Analogues Inhibit Ferroptosis, Improve Mitochondrial Parameters, and Induce Glutathione Peroxidase in HT22 Cells.

Probucol, a hypocholesterolemic compound, is neuroprotective in several models of neurodegenerative diseases but has serious adverse effects in vivo. We now describe the design and synthesis of two new probucol analogues that protect against glutamate-induced oxidative cell death, also known as ferroptosis, in cultured mouse hippocampal (HT22) cells and in primary cortical neurons, while probucol did not show any protective effect. Treatment with both compounds did not affect glutathione depletion but still significantly decreased glutamate-induced production of oxidants, mitochondrial superoxide generation, and mitochondrial hyperpolarization in HT22 cells. Both compounds increase glutathione peroxidase (GPx) 1 levels and GPx activity, also exhibiting protection against RSL3, a GPx4 inactivator. These two compounds are therefore potent activators of GPx activity making further studies of their neuroprotective activity in vivo worthwhile.

The Charcot-Marie Tooth Disease Mutation R94Q in MFN2 Decreases ATP Production but Increases Mitochondrial Respiration under Conditions of Mild Oxidative Stress.

Charcot-Marie tooth disease is a hereditary polyneuropathy caused by mutations in Mitofusin-2 (MFN2), a GTPase in the outer mitochondrial membrane involved in the regulation of mitochondrial fusion and bioenergetics. Autosomal-dominant inheritance of a R94Q mutation in MFN2 causes the axonal subtype 2A2A which is characterized by early onset and progressive atrophy of distal muscles caused by motoneuronal degeneration. Here, we studied mitochondrial shape, respiration, cytosolic, and mitochondrial ATP content as well as mitochondrial quality control in MFN2-deficient fibroblasts stably expressing wildtype or R94Q MFN2. Under normal culture conditions, R94Q cells had slightly more fragmented mitochondria but a similar mitochondrial oxygen consumption, membrane potential, and ATP production as wildtype cells. However, when inducing mild oxidative stress 24 h before analysis using 100 µM hydrogen peroxide, R94Q cells exhibited significantly increased respiration but decreased mitochondrial ATP production. This was accompanied by increased glucose uptake and an up-regulation of hexokinase 1 and pyruvate kinase M2, suggesting increased pyruvate shuttling into mitochondria. Interestingly, these changes coincided with decreased levels of PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy in R94Q cells. We conclude that mitochondria harboring the disease-causing R94Q mutation in MFN2 are more susceptible to oxidative stress, which causes uncoupling of respiration and ATP production possibly by a less efficient mitochondrial quality control.

Toxicity of organochalcogens in human leukocytes is associated, but not directly related with reactive species production, apoptosis and changes in antioxidant gene expression.

Selenium (Se) containing organic compounds, such as ebselen (Ebs) and diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)2], have been used as pharmacological agents due to their antioxidant properties. Tellurium (Te) does not have any biological function in mammals, but Te-containing organic compounds, such as diphenyl ditelluride [(PhTe)2], has been used both as an antioxidant or neurotoxic agent. At high concentrations, these compounds cause toxicity by oxidising thiol and selenol groups of proteins. Here, we analysed whether these compounds could modulate reactive species (RS) production, apoptosis and antioxidant gene expression profile of some selenoproteins and antioxidant enzymes or transcription factors in leukocytes isolated from human blood. Since no data is available about their accumulation in isolated leukocytes, we determine their concentration in the cells by CG-MS. Apoptosis (propidium iodide) and RS production (dichloro fluorescein) were determined by flow cytometry. The expression of CAT, SOD1, GPX3, GPX4, TRXR1, and NFLE2L2 genes were analysed by RT-PCR. (PhTe)2 was the only compound able to increase apoptosis rate. (PhSe)2 altered the expression of CAT and SOD1, and this was associated with a high RS production. All compounds decreased the expression of GPX3 but did not alter GPX4 and TRXR1 expression. All compounds decreased NFE2L2 expression (Ebs > (PhTe)2> (PhSe)2). We hypothesise that the toxicity induced by these organochalcogens is not directly related to their ability of inducing RS production.

Bcl-xL knockout attenuates mitochondrial respiration and causes oxidative stress that is compensated by pentose phosphate pathway activity.

Bcl-xL is an anti-apoptotic protein that localizes to the outer mitochondrial membrane and influences mitochondrial bioenergetics by controlling Ca2+ influx into mitochondria. Here, we analyzed the effect of mitochondrial Bcl-xL on mitochondrial shape and function in knockout (KO), wild type and rescued mouse embryonic fibroblast cell lines. Mitochondria of KO cells were more fragmented, exhibited a reduced ATP concentration, and reduced oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) suggesting an increased importance of ATP generation by other means. Under steady-state conditions, acidification of the growth medium as a readout for glycolysis was similar, but upon inhibition of ATP synthase with oligomycin, KO cells displayed an instant increase in glycolysis. In addition, forced energy production through OXPHOS by replacing glucose with galactose in the growth medium rendered KO cells more susceptible to mitochondrial toxins. KO cells had increased cellular reactive oxygen species and were more susceptible to oxidative stress, but had higher glutathione levels, which were however more rapidly consumed under conditions of oxidative stress. This coincided with an increased activity and protein abundance of the pentose phosphate pathway protein glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which generates NADPH necessary to regenerate reduced glutathione. KO cells were also less susceptible to pharmacological inhibition of the pentose phosphate pathway. We conclude that mitochondrial Bcl-xL is involved in maintaining mitochondrial respiratory capacity. Its deficiency causes oxidative stress, which is associated with an increased glycolytic capacity and balanced by an increased activity of the pentose phosphate pathway.

Virtual screening of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors using the Lipinski's rule of five and ZINC databank.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative pathology that can affect people over 65 years of age. It causes several complications, such as behavioral changes, language deficits, depression, and memory impairments. One of the methods used to treat AD is the increase of acetylcholine (ACh) in the brain by using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs). In this study, we used the ZINC databank and the Lipinski's rule of five to perform a virtual screening and a molecular docking (using Auto Dock Vina 1.1.1) aiming to select possible compounds that have quaternary ammonium atom able to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. The molecules were obtained by screening and further in vitro assays were performed to analyze the most potent inhibitors through the IC50 value and also to describe the interaction models between inhibitors and enzyme by molecular docking. The results showed that compound D inhibited AChE activity from different vertebrate sources and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) from Equus ferus (EfBChE), with IC50 ranging from 1.69 ± 0.46 to 5.64 ± 2.47 µM. Compound D interacted with the peripheral anionic subsite in both enzymes, blocking substrate entrance to the active site. In contrast, compound C had higher specificity as inhibitor of EfBChE. In conclusion, the screening was effective in finding inhibitors of AChE and BuChE from different organisms.

Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity evaluation of organochalcogens in human leucocytes: a comparative study between ebselen, diphenyl diselenide, and diphenyl ditelluride.

Organochalcogens, particularly ebselen, have been used in experimental and clinical trials with borderline efficacy. (PhSe)2 and (PhTe)2 are the simplest of the diaryl dichalcogenides and share with ebselen pharmacological properties. In view of the concerns with the use of mammals in studies and the great number of new organochalcogens with potential pharmacological properties that have been synthesized, it becomes important to develop screening protocols to select compounds that are worth to be tested in vivo. This study investigated the possible use of isolated human white cells as a preliminary model to test organochalcogen toxicity. Human leucocytes were exposed to 5-50 µM of ebselen, (PhSe)2, or (PhTe)2. All compounds were cytotoxic (Trypan's Blue exclusion) at the highest concentration tested, and Ebselen was the most toxic. Ebselen and (PhSe)2 were genotoxic (Comet Assay) only at 50 µM, and (PhTe)2 at 5-50 µM. Here, the acute cytotoxicity did not correspond with in vivo toxicity of the compounds. But the genotoxicity was in the same order of the in vivo toxicity to mice. These results indicate that in vitro genotoxicity in white blood cells should be considered as an early step in the investigation of potential toxicity of organochalcogens.

Effect of different oximes on rat and human cholinesterases inhibited by methamidophos: a comparative in vitro and in silico study.

Methamidophos is one of the most toxic organophosphorus (OP) compounds. It acts via phosphorylation of a serine residue in the active site of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), leading to enzyme inactivation. Different oximes have been developed to reverse this inhibition. Thus, our work aimed to test the protective or reactivation capability of pralidoxime and obidoxime, as well as two new oximes synthesised in our laboratory, on human and rat cholinesterases inhibited by methamidophos. In addition, we performed molecular docking studies in non-aged methamidophos-inhibited AChE to understand the mechanisms involved. Our results suggested that pralidoxime protected and reactivated methamidophos-inhibited rat brain AChE. Regarding human erythrocyte AChE, all oximes tested protected and reactivated the enzyme, with the best reactivation index observed at the concentration of 50 µM. Concerning BChE, butane-2,3-dionethiosemicarbazone oxime (oxime 1) was able to protect and reactivate the methamidophos-inhibited BChE by 45% at 50 µM, whereas 2(3-(phenylhydrazono)butan-2-one oxime (oxime 2) reactivated 28% of BChE activity at 100 µM. The two classical oximes failed to reactivate BChE. The molecular docking study demonstrated that pralidoxime appears to be better positioned in the active site to attack the O-P moiety of the inhibited enzyme, being near the oxyanion hole, whereas our new oximes were stably positioned in the active site in a manner similar to that of obidoxime. In conclusion, our work demonstrated that the newly synthesised oximes were able to reactivate not only human erythrocyte AChE but also human plasma BChE, which could represent an advantage in the treatment of OP compounds poisoning.

NECAB family of neuronal calcium-binding proteins in health and disease.

The N-terminal EF-hand calcium-binding proteins 1-3 (NECAB1-3) constitute a family of predominantly neuronal proteins characterized by the presence of at least one EF-hand calcium-binding domain and a functionally less well characterized C-terminal antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. All three family members were initially discovered due to their interactions with other proteins. NECAB1 associates with synaptotagmin-1, a critical neuronal protein involved in membrane trafficking and synaptic vesicle exocytosis. NECAB2 interacts with predominantly striatal G-protein-coupled receptors, while NECAB3 partners with amyloid-ß A4 precursor protein-binding family A members 2 and 3, key regulators of amyloid-ß production. This demonstrates the capacity of the family for interactions with various classes of proteins. NECAB proteins exhibit distinct subcellular localizations: NECAB1 is found in the nucleus and cytosol, NECAB2 resides in endosomes and the plasma membrane, and NECAB3 is present in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. The antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain, an evolutionarily ancient component, is akin to atypical heme oxygenases in prokaryotes but is not well-characterized in vertebrates. Prokaryotic antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domains typically form dimers, suggesting that calcium-mediated conformational changes in NECAB proteins may induce antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain dimerization, potentially activating some enzymatic properties. However, the substrate for this enzymatic activity remains uncertain. Alternatively, calcium-mediated conformational changes might influence protein interactions or the subcellular localization of NECAB proteins by controlling the availability of protein-protein interaction domains situated between the EF hands and the antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase domain. This review summarizes what is known about genomic organization, tissue expression, intracellular localization, interaction partners, and the physiological and pathophysiological role of the NECAB family.