Venous Thromboembolism in Cancer: Frequently Asked Questions When Guidelines are Inconclusive.

Management of Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients is difficult when guidelines are inconclusive. To share a reasonable and homogeneous behavior in such circumstances, four issues, which are felt as problematic by oncologists and surgeons, have been selected; all were uncovered or only partially covered by current guidelines. Results from the literature and author's specific experience in the field were utilized to suggest reasonable solutions to the raised questions. The reported experience is the first to provide real-world management guidance for VTE in cancer patients. The effort of putting together literature review and author's experience brought to the adoption of a common behavior.

Impact of long-term exposure to cigarette smoking on skin microvascular function.

In order to evaluate the impact of cigarettes smoking and smokers' clinical characteristics on skin microvascular function, we measured the skin forearm blood flux, basally and during post-occlusive reactive hyperaemia, in 100 current smokers (mean age 51±11 years; range: 18 to 86 years) and in 66 healthy never-smokers matched for age and sex, by using laser Doppler fluximetry (LDF). Basal and post-ischemic LDF tracings were analyzed in the frequency domain within 0.009-0.02 Hz, 0.021-0.06 Hz and 0.061-0.2 Hz ranges, related to endothelial-dependent, sympathetic-dependent and myogenic-dependent vasomotion, respectively, using an adapted version of the Fourier analysis. The post-ischemic percentage change from baseline of the area under the LDF curve (AUC%) was significantly lower in smokers than in never-smokers [162.5% (139.3-183.0) vs 190.1% (156.3-216.8); p=0.00016]. Compared to controls, smokers also showed a reduced basal power spectral density (PSD) in the myogenic-dependent vasomotion (p=0.0034) and a reduced post-ischemic percentage increase in PSD of the endothelial-dependent vasomotion (p=0.0010) and sympathetic-dependent vasomotion (p=0.0016). An inverse relationship was observed in smokers between AUC% and smoking exposure duration (r=0.23, p=0.018), pack-years (r=0.33, p=0.0007), age (r=0.26, p=0.008) and body mass index (r=0.21, p=0.037). In the multiple linear regression model, pack-years was the only variable independently associated with AUC% (r=0.21, p=0.03). This study confirms that smoking is associated with cutaneous microvascular dysfunction and shows that the severity of this impairment is independently related to the duration and intensity of the exposure to smoking.

Clinical standards for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of post-COVID-19 lung disease.

BACKGROUND: The aim of these clinical standards is to provide guidance on 'best practice' care for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of post-COVID-19 lung disease.METHODS: A panel of international experts representing scientific societies, associations and groups active in post-COVID-19 lung disease was identified; 45 completed a Delphi process. A 5-point Likert scale indicated level of agreement with the draft standards. The final version was approved by consensus (with 100% agreement).RESULTS: Four clinical standards were agreed for patients with a previous history of COVID-19: Standard 1, Patients with sequelae not explained by an alternative diagnosis should be evaluated for possible post-COVID-19 lung disease; Standard 2, Patients with lung function impairment, reduced exercise tolerance, reduced quality of life (QoL) or other relevant signs or ongoing symptoms ≥4 weeks after the onset of first symptoms should be evaluated for treatment and pulmonary rehabilitation (PR); Standard 3, The PR programme should be based on feasibility, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness criteria, organised according to local health services and tailored to an individual patient's needs; and Standard 4, Each patient undergoing and completing PR should be evaluated to determine its effectiveness and have access to a counselling/health education session.CONCLUSION: This is the first consensus-based set of clinical standards for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of post-COVID-19 lung disease. Our aim is to improve patient care and QoL by guiding clinicians, programme managers and public health officers in planning and implementing a PR programme to manage post-COVID-19 lung disease.

Single breath nitrogen test as predictor of lung function decline and COPD over an 8-year follow-up.

BACKGROUND: The single breath nitrogen (SBN2) test was proposed for early detection of "small airways disease" in the seventies. Few longitudinal studies have subsequently evaluated the relationships between SBN2 test measurements and lung function decline or COPD incidence. AIM: This study evaluates whether SBN2 test abnormalities may be significant predictors of lung function decline and COPD incidence over an 8-year follow-up. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: In this longitudinal study, 907 adults (20+ years old; 56% males) from the prospective Po River Delta epidemiological study underwent SBN2 test at baseline and spirometry testing at both baseline and follow-up 8-year apart. Multinomial and multiple regression models were used to assess associations of SBN2 indexes and rates of FEV1 decline or risk of COPD incidence over time, after adjusting for sex, height and baseline age, FEV1 and smoking status. COPD was defined according to either GOLD or ATS-ERS criteria. RESULTS: Among SBN2 indexes, only the slope of alveolar plateau (N2-slope) was significantly associated with rates of FEV1 decline (7.93 mL/year for a one-unit change in N2-slope, p<0.0001), and with an increased risk of developing COPD as defined by GOLD (RR 1.81, 95%CI 1.29-2.52, mild; RR 2.78, 95%CI 1.70-4.53, moderate or severe obstruction) and ATS-ERS criteria (RR 1.62, 95%CI 1.14-2.29, mild; RR 3.40, 95%CI 1.72-6.73, moderate or severe obstruction). CONCLUSION: In this population-based study, N2-slope from SBN2 test is a significant predictor of lung function decline and COPD incidence over an 8-year follow-up, confirming the role of the "small airways disease" in the natural history of COPD.

Weight gain after smoking cessation.

Both overweight or obesity and cigarette smoking are relevant risk factors for public health. Cigarette smoking is associated with lower body weight while smoking cessation is associated with weight gain. Most smokers who quit experience a weight gain, particularly within one year, and it may persist up to 8 years after smoking cessation. However, only a minority of quitters gain excessive weight. Some individual characteristics have been found to be associated with excessive weight gain after smoking cessation while methodological problems may affect estimates of weight gain observed in different studies. Main mechanisms to explain weight gain after smoking cessation include increased energy intake, decreased resting metabolic rate, and decreased physical activity. The health benefits of smoking cessation far exceed any health risks that may result from smoking cessation-induced body weight gain. As weight gain may be a barrier against quitting smoking or a reason to restart smoking, behavioural and pharmacological methods have been evaluated to control weight gain after smoking cessation. Physicians should apply efficient strategies to promote smoking cessation on their weight-concerned smoking patient. This review briefly addresses some issues on the relationship between smoking cessation and weight gain, with regard to the size of the problem, mechanisms, health risks and control strategies.

Reported prevalence and co-morbidity of asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema: a pan-European estimation.

OBJECTIVE: Comparable population-based data exist at the European level for asthma but not for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Data from the World Health Organization's Large Analysis and Review of European Housing and Health Status Study conducted in random samples from eight European cities were used 1) to describe the prevalence of chronic bronchitis and emphysema (CBE) and asthma according to socio-demography, addictions, physical activities and body mass index; and 2) to identify the co-morbidities of these respiratory diseases. DESIGN: A total of 6915 adults filled out a standardised questionnaire on health outcomes, including major respiratory diseases and individual characteristics. RESULTS: Data showed that in the year preceding the survey, 3.3% of individuals had been diagnosed or treated for asthma and 6.2% for CBE. One per cent suffered simultaneously from both. Large variations were observed between cities. Physical activities and never smoking were inversely associated with CBE, independently of socio-cultural differences between the eight cities. Furthermore, both asthma and CBE were significantly related to several non-respiratory diseases, after adjustment for potential confounders. CONCLUSION: Population-based data from eight European cities show that there is a link between chronic respiratory diseases and various non-respiratory co-morbidities that needs further investigation.

[Epidemiology of the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: environmental and occupational risk]. / Epidemiologia della broncopneumopatia cronico-ostruttiva: fattori di rischio ambientali ed occupazionali.

FACTORS. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a very important cause of morbidity and mortality in industrialized and developing countries. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2020 COPD will become the third leading cause of death all over the world. To date, several risk factors for developing COPD have been studied. They can act either singly or interacting among themselves in a synergistic way. Smoking habits and aging are the most important factor for development and exacerbation of COPD, but environmental conditions, such as air pollution and work exposure, can be relevant factors. Recommendations for the prevention of COPD, beside the promotion of smoking cessation, may be air pollution abatement and control of professional exposure. In view of historical trend of risk factors exposure, further epidemiological studies are necessary for a better knowledge of COPD natural history.

Serum antibodies to benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide-DNA adducts in the general population: effects of air pollution, tobacco smoking, and family history of lung diseases.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are almost ubiquitous pollutants that may interact with metabolic systems in human tissues and eventually cause cancer. PAH-adducted DNA becomes antigenic and antibodies anti-benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide (BPDE)-DNA may be found in serum of PAH-exposed subjects. The presence of serum antibodies anti-BPDE-DNA adduct was investigated in 1345 individuals from family clusters of the general population of a small area in central Italy in whom information about smoking habits, site of residence, and personal and family history of lung diseases, including cancer, were obtained. Anti-BPDE-DNA antibodies in the sera were detected with a direct ELISA and the association of anti-BPDE-DNA antibodies with subjects' data from a standardized respiratory questionnaire including age, occupation, tobacco smoking habits, respiratory symptoms, and family history of respiratory diseases was subsequently tested by multivariate logistic regression analysis. The overall prevalence of subjects with anti-BPDE-DNA antibodies was 21.0% (n=283), with no differences between males and females. Anti-BPDE-DNA positivity was associated with living in the urban area [odds ratio (OR), 1.49; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.16-1.92], with active tobacco smoking (OR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.06-1.48), and with family history of lung cancer (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 0.90-1.88), and positivity increased with the number of members in the family cluster positive to anti-BPDE-DNA antibodies (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.03-1.65). This study on a large general population sample indicates that serum anti-BPDE-DNA antibodies may be considered as biomarkers of exposure to environmental carcinogens and of DNA damage. The genetic and familial components of their association with tobacco smoking lend further support to the argument about the familial predisposition to lung cancer.

Long-lasting effects of tobacco smoking on pulmonary drug-metabolizing enzymes: a case-control study on lung cancer patients.

Lung tissue specimens were taken during surgery from middle-aged men with either lung cancer (LC, n = 54) or a nonneoplastic lung disease (n = 20). Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH), 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase (ECDE), epoxide hydrolase (EH), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT) activities and glutathione and malondialdehyde contents were determined in 12,000 X g supernatant fractions from nontumorous parenchymal tissues. Interindividual differences in enzyme activities ranged from 11- to 440-fold, and glutathione content varied by 17-fold; the values showed unimodal distributions. AHH, ECDE, EH, and UDPGT activities were significantly and positively correlated to each other; a significant negative correlation was found between GST and the other enzymes. A relationship between enzyme activity and number of cigarettes smoked (pack-years) was found only for GST. Ignoring detailed smoking histories in the 6-month period preceding surgery, no difference was found in enzyme activities or glutathione content between LC and nonneoplastic lung disease patients or between smokers and nonsmokers. However, when the number of days since stopping smoking was considered, in smokers a significant increase was found for AHH, EH, and UDPGT activities and a significant decrease was found for GST activity, as compared to nonsmokers. LC patients who had smoked until the day before surgery had higher activities of AHH, ECDE, EH, and UDPGT than nonsmokers, while GST activity was reduced by one-third. The activities of these enzymes returned to the basal level found in nonsmokers within 59 (AHH), 108 (EH), 67 (UDPGT), and 40 (GST) days. LC patients who were recent smokers (within 30 days prior to surgery) had significantly induced AHH and ECDE activities when compared with smoking nonneoplastic lung disease patients. These results show that pulmonary drug metabolism can be altered by tobacco smoking and that these effects can last 40 to 108 days after cessation of smoking. These new findings should be considered in studies on the role of carcinogen-metabolizing enzymes in determining susceptibility to lung cancer.

Prevalence rates of respiratory symptoms in Italian general population samples exposed to different levels of air pollution.

We surveyed two general population samples aged 8 to 64 living in the unpolluted, rural area of the Po Delta (northern Italy) (n = 3289) and in the urban area of Pisa (central Italy) (n = 2917). Each subject filled out a standardized interviewer-administered questionnaire. The Pisa sample was divided into three groups according to their residence in the urban-suburban areas and to outdoor air pollution exposure (automobile exhaust only or industrial fumes as well). Significantly higher prevalence rates of all the respiratory symptoms and diseases were found in Pisa compared with the Po Delta. In particular, rhinitis and wheezing symptoms were higher in all the three urban zones; chronic cough and phlegm were higher in the zone with the automobile exhaust and the additional industrial exposure. Current smoking was more frequent in the rural area, but the urban smokers had a higher lifetime cigarette consumption. Childhood respiratory trouble and recurrent respiratory illnesses were evenly distributed. Exposure to parental smoking in childhood and lower educational level were more frequent in Po Delta, whereas familial history of respiratory/allergic disorders and work and indoor exposures were more often reported in the city. Multiple logistic regression models estimating independently the role of the various risk factors showed significant odds ratios associated with residence in Pisa for all the symptoms but chronic phlegm. For example, those living in the urban-industrial zone had an odds ratio of 4.0 (4.3-3.7) for rhinitis and 2.8 (3.0-2.6) for wheeze with respect to those living in the Po Delta.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Characteristics of nonsmoking women exposed to spouses who smoke: epidemiologic study on environment and health in women from four Italian areas.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether risk factors associated with cardiovascular or respiratory diseases and lung cancer occur differently among nonsmoking women in Italy with and without exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) from husbands that smoke. We performed a cross-sectional study of 1,938 nonsmoking women in four areas of Italy. Data on respiratory and cardiovascular risk factors and on diet were collected using self-administered questionnaires. Medical examinations and blood tests were administered; urine cotinine levels were measured. Nonsmoking women ever exposed to husbands' smoking were compared with unexposed women for several factors: education, husband's education, household crowding, number of children, current or past occupation, exposure to toxic substances at work, parental diseases, self-perceived health status, physician-diagnosed hypertension, hypercholesterol, diabetes, osteoporosis, chronic respiratory diseases, blood pressure medications, lifestyle and preventive behaviors, dietary variables, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, body mass index, waist-hip ratio, triceps skin folds, plasma antioxidant (pro-) vitamins (- and ss-carotene, retinol, l-ascorbic acid, -tocopherol, lycopene), serum total and HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. Women married to smokers were more likely to be less educated, to be married to a less educated husband, and to live in more crowded dwellings than women married to nonsmokers. Women married to smokers were significantly less likely to eat cooked [odds ratio (OR) = 0.72; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.55-0.93] or fresh vegetables (OR = 0.63; CI, 0.49-0.82) more than once a day than women not exposed to ETS. Exposed women had significantly higher urinary cotinine than unexposed subjects (difference: 2.94 ng/mg creatinine). All the other variables were not more prevalent among exposed compared to unexposed subjects. The results regarding demographic factors are easily explained by the social class distribution of smoking in Italy. A lower intake of vegetables among exposed women in our study is consistent with the available literature. Overall, our results do not support previous claims of more frequent risk factors for cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases among ETS-exposed subjects. In Italy, as elsewhere in Europe and North America, women who have never smoked but are married to smokers are likely to be of lower social class than those married to never-smokers. However, once socioeconomic differences are considered, the possibility of confounding in studies on the health effects of ETS is minimal.

Single breath nitrogen test in an epidemiologic survey in North Italy. Reliability, reference values and relationships with symptoms.

The usefulness of single breath nitrogen test (SBN2) was evaluated in a cross-sectional epidemiologic survey on a general population sample (n = 3,289) of North Italy. Each subject was submitted to CNR standardized questionnaire and to lung function testing using automated equipment (Hewlett-Packard 47804S). Acceptable closing volume (CV) and slope of alveolar plateau (DN2%/L) tracings were performed by only 1,370 and 1,982 subjects respectively, in comparison with the 2,638 diffusing capacity and the 3,079 forced vital capacity acceptable maneuvers. Prediction equations were computed on normal subjects for CV indices, with the exception of DN2%/L: they were similar to those found in other studies. Significant differences among smoking categories were found for all the SBN2 parameters in males, but only for DN2%/L in females. The latter was also able to distinguish either subjects with airway obstruction from those without it or symptomatic from asymptomatic individuals, but DN2%/L did not give more information than Vmax75, a sensitive index of flow volume curve. Our results suggest that the place of SBN2 in large scale epidemiologic testing has not been justified.

Prevalence of airways obstruction in a general population: European Respiratory Society vs American Thoracic Society definition.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the distribution of airways obstruction in a general population sample. METHODS: Cross-sectional epidemiologic survey of a general population sample living in Po Delta area (North Italy). Data on respiratory symptoms, diseases, and risk factors were collected through standardized interviewer-administered questionnaires. Lung function tests were performed, with criteria for defining airways obstruction based on the 1995 European Respiratory Society (ERS) statement (FEV(1)/vital capacity ratio < 88% predicted and < 89% predicted in men and women, respectively), "clinical" criteria (FEV(1)/FVC ratio < 70%), and the 1986 American Thoracic Society (ATS) statement (FEV(1)/FVC ratio < 75%). RESULTS: A total of 1,727 subjects aged > 25 years investigated from 1988 to 1991 were included. Prevalence rates of airways obstruction for subjects 25 to 45 years old and subjects >/= 46 years old were as follows: ERS, 10.8% and 12.2%; clinical, 9.9% and 28.8%; and ATS, 27% and 57%, respectively. When considering only moderate/severe obstruction, the rates were as follows: ERS, 0.4% and 3.6%; clinical, 0.3% and 4.4%; and ATS, 0.5% and 5.2%, respectively. The trend was confirmed after stratifying for smoking habit and the presence/absence of respiratory symptoms/diseases. The highest specificity and predictive value for any respiratory symptom/disease was shown by the ERS, and the lowest was shown by the ATS criterion, while the reverse was true for sensitivity; overall accuracy was slightly lower for the ATS criterion. Multiple logistic regression models indicated a higher number of significant associations with known risk factors for airways obstruction according to clinical and ATS criteria than ERS criterion. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of COPD in a general population depends very much on the criterion used for definition of airways obstruction. Further research is needed to reach a standardized and epidemiologically consistent criterion for airways obstruction.

An 8-year follow-up of carbon monoxide diffusing capacity in a general population sample of northern italy.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is frequently assessed as part of a thorough pulmonary function assessment in patients with pulmonary or cardiopulmonary diseases. However, little information regarding the longitudinal trends of DLCO is available. In this study, we examined the temporal trends in DLCO to determine the effects of smoking and changes in smoking habits. DESIGN: A longitudinal study was recently conducted in the Po River Delta area of northern Italy, in which DLCO measurements were taken approximately 8 years apart in the same subjects; this offered the unique opportunity to assess the temporal changes in DLCO. The longitudinal DLCO data were analyzed independently in two age groups (20 to 40 years, and > or = 40 years) using a repeated-measures analysis. RESULTS: Included were 928 subjects > 20 years old who had DLCO assessments both at baseline and follow-up. Male subjects had higher mean levels of DLCO than female subjects in the older age group (> or = 40 years). Continuous smokers had significantly lower DLCO levels than "never-smokers," but their changes in DLCO during follow-up were the same. This suggests that the lung damage due to smoking had occurred prior to DLCO testing. We also found that the annual decline in DLCO accelerated with age in adults > or = 40 years old. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that in adults > or = 40 years of age from the general population, DLCO accelerates downwards regardless of gender, smoking, and initial FEV(1) level.

Prospective study of a standardized questionnaire to improve clinical estimate of pulmonary embolism.

A standardized questionnaire was administered to 100 patients suspected of having pulmonary embolism to investigate whether clinical data may be reliably used in the decision-making process of such patients. Questionnaire data were compared with lung scintigraphy outcome and 16 variables were selected as significantly associated with the scintigraphic diagnosis. Based on these variables, patients with abnormal scintigraphy compatible with pulmonary embolism and patients with scintigraphy not compatible with embolism were classified in accordance with the scintigraphic diagnosis. When these 16 variables were tested in an additional validation group, clinical and scintigraphic diagnosis matched in most cases. These results show that clinical data can be used to predict the outcome of lung perfusion scintigraphy in patients suspected of pulmonary embolism. Use of a standardized questionnaire can improve the accuracy of pretest assessment of such patients and positively influence the decisions to start heparin coverage or obtain pulmonary angiography.

Comparison of algorithms for determining the end-point of the forced vital capacity maneuver.

The criteria of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) for determining the end-point of the forced vital capacity (FVC) maneuver were compared with an algorithm employed by a computer system (Hewlett-Packard), which yields a later end-point. The 150 subjects tested were divided into five groups of 30 on the basis of the following spirometric diagnoses: normal; small airways' obstruction (SAO); mild airways' obstruction (MAO); severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); or restrictive disease. The subjects performed a minimum of three maneuvers according to ATS standards, and the flow-volume curves with the greatest sum of FVC and forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV) were chosen for analysis by the two algorithms. Hewlett-Packard (HP) values for FVC and FVC time were always higher than the corresponding ATS values, and the HP values for flows were always lower than the corresponding ATS values. The higher differences were observed in the SAO group. In the group with severe COPD, high FVC differences and low flow differences were observed; on the contrary, in the restrictive group, low FVC differences and high flow differences were present. These results, in addition to the different location of the FVC end point, may be explained by the different morphology of the flow-volume curves. In conclusion, the ATS algorithm caused a systematic underevaluation of FVC and a systematic overevaluation of flows, which cause practical consequences only in the SAO group. In fact, 28 percent (17/60) of the subjects with SAO characteristics were considered "normal" using ATS criteria for the end-point.

Residual volume in a general population. Effects of body size, age, cigarette smoking, and respiratory symptoms.

Residual volume (RV) was obtained by subtracting vital capacity from total lung capacity determined by the single breath helium dilution (TLCsb) to measure CO diffusing capacity in 2,680 subjects (8 to 64 years old) of a general population sample. There were 712 normal subjects (243 male and 469 female subjects) selected to evaluate the pattern of RV by age and to derive reference values for internal comparisons. From 8 to 20 years old, RV showed an increase because of the cross-sectional body size effect; after 20 to 30 years, RV was still increasing, however, at a lower level. Age and height coefficients were significantly related to RV in younger and older ages, both in male and female subjects. The RV percent predicted and RV/TLC percent were higher in smokers when compared to nonsmokers and exsmokers (the difference was significant in male subjects). A dose-response effect was observed between RV percent predicted, RV/TLC percent, and pack-years. The RV percent predicted and RV/TLC percent were significantly higher in smokers and nonsmokers with FEV1 percent predicted below the normal limit (the difference was significant in male subjects). Moreover, higher values of RV percent predicted and RV/TLC percent were observed in subjects with wheezy symptoms in male smokers and nonsmokers. A negative significant correlation was observed between RV/TLC percent and the diffusing capacity adjusted for lung volume (DL/VA) in smokers, exsmokers and nonsmokers of both sexes, confirming the hypothesis that the decrease in DL/VA may be ascribed to the enlargement of terminal air spaces. In conclusion, determination of RV by the single breath helium dilution method is suitable in epidemiology, and it allows additional important information for understanding the physiopathologic mechanisms related to the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive lung disease.

Indoor air pollution and airway disease.

Scientific interest in indoor pollution has been increasing since the second half of the 1980s. Growing scientific evidence has shown that because people generally spend the majority of their time indoors, indoor pollution plays a significant role in affecting health and is thus an important health issue. Indoor environments include dwellings, workplaces, schools and day care centres, bars, discotheques and vehicles. Common indoor pollutants are environmental tobacco smoke, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and biological allergens. In developing countries, relevant sources of indoor pollution include biomass and coal burning for cooking and heating. Concentrations of these pollutants can be many times higher indoors than outdoors. Indoor air pollution may increase the risk of irritation phenomena, allergic sensitisation, acute and chronic respiratory disorders and lung function impairment. Recent conservative estimates have shown that 1.5-2 million deaths per year worldwide could be attributed to indoor air pollution. Approximately 1 million of these deaths occur in children aged under 5 years due to acute respiratory infections, and significant proportions of deaths occur due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer in women. Today, indoor air pollution ranks tenth among preventable risk factors contributing to the global burden of disease. Further research is necessary to better evaluate the respiratory health effects of indoor pollution and to implement protective programmes for public health.

Prevalence rates of respiratory symptoms and diseases in general population samples of North and Central Italy.

SETTING: Four cross-sectional general population surveys in Italy: northern rural Po Delta area (1980-1982, n = 3284; 1988-1991, n = 2841), and central urban Pisa area (1985-1988, n = 3865; 1991-1993, n = 2841). OBJECTIVE: To analyse changes in prevalence rates of respiratory symptoms and diseases. DESIGN: Prospective epidemiological studies by standardised interviewer-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Prevalence rates of respiratory symptoms and diseases tended to be higher in males (except for dyspnea and pleuritis), in the urban area (more polluted), and in the second surveys; moreover, they increased with age. Asthma peaked in those aged under 25 years and over 64 years. The highest prevalence rates were shown by current smokers of both sexes for all respiratory symptoms and by ex-smoker males for all respiratory diseases, while female current smokers reported chronic bronchitis, emphysema and asthma more frequently. The most clear-cut trend towards increase between the two surveys within each area was exhibited by wheeze and asthma. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the relevance of sex, age and smoking habit, as well as the possible effects of air pollution, in relation to respiratory symptoms. They also indicate a trend towards an increase in asthma symptoms in Italian general population samples in the 1990s, and an under-estimate of medically diagnosed chronic respiratory diseases.

The Po River Delta epidemiological study: use of medicines in a general population sample of north Italy.

Purpose-To provide information on the actual use of medicines in a general population sample.Methods-Information was collected in a general population sample of North Italy (1946 subjects; 938 males, 1008 females) by an interviewer-administered questionnaire.Results-Of the subjects 25.9% took habitually at least one medicine, whereas 11.1% used medicaments only occasionally. The use of medicines was significantly higher in females than in males (p < 0.001), but only in 15-44-year-old females, because of the use of oral contraceptives. The use of medicines increased with ageing (OR=1.80, p < 0.001). The highest use of habitual medicaments was found in subjects of 55+ years of both sexes. In both sexes, the medicines classified in the cardiovascular therapeutic group were the most frequently used. The use of gastrointestinal and cardiovascular medicines was significantly higher in males than in females (p < 0.001). In males, the use of habitual medicines was significantly (p < 0.001) higher in current smokers and ex-smokers than in never smokers. Only 23% of allergic subjects used antiallergic medicines, and only 35% of subjects with respiratory symptoms/diseases used medicines classified into the bronchopulmonary therapeutic group. The percentage of subjects who reported cardiovascular symptoms/diseases and used medicines classified in the cardiovascular therapeutic group was greater (62%).Conclusions-We stress the importance of data collection in general population samples by questionnaires to investigate the actual use of medicines. This may give a more accurate estimate of medicine use than is possible from pharmacy sales or hospital records. Copyright (c) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.