Oncological outcomes after attempted nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy (NSRP) in patients with high-risk prostate cancer are comparable to standard non-NSRP: a longitudinal long-term propensity-matched single-centre study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the long-term safety of nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy (NSRP) in men with high-risk prostate cancer (PCa) by comparing survival outcomes, disease recurrence, the need for additional therapy, and perioperative outcomes of patients undergoing NSRP to those having non-NSRP. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We included consecutive patients at a single, academic centre who underwent open RP for high-risk PCa, defined as preoperative prostate-specific antigen level of > 20 ng/mL and/or postoperative International Society of Urological Pathology Grade Group 4 or 5 (i.e., Gleason score ≥ 8) and/or ≥pT3 and/or pN1 assessing the RP and lymph node specimen. We calculated a propensity score and used inverse probability of treatment weighting to match baseline characteristics of patients with high-risk PCa who underwent NSRP vs non-NSRP. We analysed oncological outcome as time-to-event and calculated hazard ratios (HRs). RESULTS: A total of 726 patients were included in this analysis of which 84% (n = 609) underwent NSRP. There was no evidence for the positive surgical margin rate being different between the NSRP and non-NSRP groups (47% vs 49%, P = 0.64). Likewise, there was no evidence for the need for postoperative radiotherapy being different in men who underwent NSRP from those who underwent non-NSRP (HR 0.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.53-1.15). NSRP did not impact the risk of any recurrence (HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.73-1.34, P = 0.09) and there was no evidence for survival being different in men who underwent NSRP to those who underwent non-NSRP (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.39-1.08). There was also no evidence for the cancer-specific survival (HR 0.56, 95% CI 0.29-1.11) or progression-free survival (HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.73-1.34) being different between the groups. CONCLUSION: In patients with high-risk PCa, NSRP can be attempted without compromising long-term oncological outcomes provided a comprehensive assessment of objective (e.g., T Stage) and subjective (e.g., intraoperative appraisal of tissue planes) criteria are conducted.

Molecular classification of hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant prostate cancer, using nonnegative matrix factorization molecular subtyping of primary and metastatic specimens.

BACKGROUND: Despite the rapidly evolving therapeutic landscape, immunotherapy has demonstrated limited activity in prostate cancer. A greater understanding of the molecular landscape, particularly the expression of immune-related pathways, will inform future immunotherapeutic strategies. Consensus nonnegative matrix factorization (cNMF) is a novel model of molecular classification analyzing gene expression data, focusing on biological interpretation of metagenes and selecting meaningful clusters. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify molecular subtypes of prostate cancer using cNMF and correlate these with existing biomarkers to inform future immunotherapeutic strategies. METHODS: A cohort of archival tumor specimens from hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant disease was studied. Whole transcriptomic profiles were generated using TruSeq RNA Access technology and subjected to cNMF. Comprehensive genomic profiling was performed with the FoundationOne assay. NMF subtypes were characterized by gene expression pathways, genomic alterations and correlated with clinical data, then applied to The Cancer Genome Atlas data set. RESULTS: We studied 164 specimens, including 52 castration-resistant and 13 paired primary/metastatic specimens. cNMF identified four distinct subtypes. NMF1 (19%) is enriched for immune-related and stromal-related pathways with transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) signature. NMF2 (36%) is associated with FOXO-mediated transcription signature and AKT signaling, NMF3 (26%) is enriched for ribosomal RNA processing, while NMF4 (19%) is enriched for cell cycle and DNA-repair pathways. The most common gene alterations included TMPRSS22 (42%), TP53 (23%), and DNA-repair genes (19%), occurring across all subtypes. NMF4 is significantly enriched for MYC and Wnt-signaling gene alterations. TMB, CD8 density, and PD-L1 expression were low overall. NMF1 and NMF4 were NMF2 was associated with superior overall survival. CONCLUSIONS: Using cNMF, we identified four molecularly distinct subtypes which may inform treatment selection. NMF1 demonstrates the most inflammatory signature with asuppressive TGFß signature, suggesting potential benefit with immunotherapy combination strategies targeting TGFß and PD-(L)1. Prospective studies are required to evaluate the use of this novel model to molecularly stratify patients for optimal treatment selection.

Prostate cancer cell-intrinsic interferon signaling regulates dormancy and metastatic outgrowth in bone.

The latency associated with bone metastasis emergence in castrate-resistant prostate cancer is attributed to dormancy, a state in which cancer cells persist prior to overt lesion formation. Using single-cell transcriptomics and ex vivo profiling, we have uncovered the critical role of tumor-intrinsic immune signaling in the retention of cancer cell dormancy. We demonstrate that loss of tumor-intrinsic type I IFN occurs in proliferating prostate cancer cells in bone. This loss suppresses tumor immunogenicity and therapeutic response and promotes bone cell activation to drive cancer progression. Restoration of tumor-intrinsic IFN signaling by HDAC inhibition increased tumor cell visibility, promoted long-term antitumor immunity, and blocked cancer growth in bone. Key findings were validated in patients, including loss of tumor-intrinsic IFN signaling and immunogenicity in bone metastases compared to primary tumors. Data herein provide a rationale as to why current immunotherapeutics fail in bone-metastatic prostate cancer, and provide a new therapeutic strategy to overcome the inefficacy of immune-based therapies in solid cancers.

Transcriptome sequencing and multi-plex imaging of prostate cancer microenvironment reveals a dominant role for monocytic cells in progression.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer is caused by genomic aberrations in normal epithelial cells, however clinical translation of findings from analyses of cancer cells alone has been very limited. A deeper understanding of the tumour microenvironment is needed to identify the key drivers of disease progression and reveal novel therapeutic opportunities. RESULTS: In this study, the experimental enrichment of selected cell-types, the development of a Bayesian inference model for continuous differential transcript abundance, and multiplex immunohistochemistry permitted us to define the transcriptional landscape of the prostate cancer microenvironment along the disease progression axis. An important role of monocytes and macrophages in prostate cancer progression and disease recurrence was uncovered, supported by both transcriptional landscape findings and by differential tissue composition analyses. These findings were corroborated and validated by spatial analyses at the single-cell level using multiplex immunohistochemistry. CONCLUSIONS: This study advances our knowledge concerning the role of monocyte-derived recruitment in primary prostate cancer, and supports their key role in disease progression, patient survival and prostate microenvironment immune modulation.

The modified International Society of Urological Pathology system improves concordance between biopsy and prostatectomy tumour grade.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the concordance between biopsy and radical prostatectomy (RP) specimens using the 2005 Gleason score (GS) and the International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) 2014/World Health Organization 2016 modified system, accounting for the introduction of transperineal biopsy and pre-biopsy multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between 2002 and 2019, we identified 2431 patients with paired biopsy and RP histopathology from a prospectively recorded and maintained prostate cancer database. Biopsy specimens were graded according to the 2005 GS or ISUP 2014 modified system, according to the year of diagnosis. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to retrospectively assess the impact of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), PSA density, age, pre-biopsy mpMRI, and biopsy method, on the rate of upgraded disease. The kappa coefficient was used to establish the degree of change in concordance between groups. RESULTS: Overall, 24% of patients had upgraded disease and 8% of patients had downgraded disease when using the modified ISUP 2014 criteria. Agreement in the updated ISUP 2014 cohort was 68%, compared with 55% in the 2005 GS group, which was validated by a kappa coefficient that was good (k = 0.5 ± 0.4) and poor (k = 0.3 ± 0.1), respectively. In multivariable models, a change in grading system independently improved overall disease concordance (P = 0.02), and there were no other co-segregated patient or pathological factors such as PSA, total number of cores, maximum cancer length, biopsy route or the use of mpMRI that impacted this finding. CONCLUSION: The 2014 ISUP modifed system improves overall concordance between biopsy and surgical specimens, and thus allows more accurate prognostication and management in high-grade disease, independent of more extensive prostate sampling and the use of mpMRI.

Lifetime Health and Economic Outcomes of Active Surveillance, Radical Prostatectomy, and Radiotherapy for Favorable-Risk Localized Prostate Cancer.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the lifetime health and economic outcomes of selecting active surveillance (AS), radical prostatectomy (RP), or radiation therapy (RT) as initial management for low- or favorable-risk localized prostate cancer. METHODS: A discrete-event simulation model was developed using evidence from published randomized trials. Health outcomes were measured in life-years and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Costs were included from a public payer perspective in Australian dollars. Outcomes were discounted at 5% over a lifetime horizon. Probabilistic and scenario analyses quantified parameter and structural uncertainty. RESULTS: A total of 60% of patients in the AS arm eventually received radical treatment (surgery or radiotherapy) compared with 90% for RP and 91% for RT. Although AS resulted in fewer treatment-related complications, it led to increased clinical progression (AS 40.7%, RP 17.6%, RT 19.9%) and metastatic disease (AS 13.4%, RP 6.1%, RT 7.0%). QALYs were 10.88 for AS, 11.10 for RP, and 11.13 for RT. Total costs were A$17 912 for AS, A$15 609 for RP, and A$15 118 for RT. At a willingness to pay of A$20 000/QALY, RT had a 61.4% chance of being cost-effective compared to 38.5% for RP and 0.1% for AS. CONCLUSIONS: Although AS resulted in fewer and delayed treatment-related complications, it was not found to be a cost-effective strategy for favorable-risk localized prostate cancer over a lifetime horizon because of an increase in the number of patients developing metastatic disease. RT was the dominant strategy yielding higher QALYs at lower cost although differences compared with RP were small.

Cell quiescence correlates with enhanced glioblastoma cell invasion and cytotoxic resistance.

Glioblastoma (GBM) tumor cells exhibit drug resistance and are highly infiltrative. GBM stem cells (GSCs), which have low proliferative capacity are thought to be one of the sources of resistant cells which result in relapse/recurrence. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating quiescent-specific tumor cell biology are not well understood. Using human GBM cell lines and patient-derived GBM cells, Oregon Green dye retention was used to identify and isolate the slow-cycling, quiescent-like cell subpopulation from the more proliferative cells in culture. Sensitivity of cell subpopulations to temozolomide and radiation, as well as the migration and invasive potential were measured. Differential expression analysis following RNAseq identified genes enriched in the quiescent cell subpopulation. Orthotopic transplantation of cells into mice was used to compare the in vivo malignancy and invasive capacity of the cells. Proliferative quiescence correlated with better TMZ resistance and enhanced cell invasion, in vitro and in vivo. RNAseq expression analysis identified genes involved in the regulation cell invasion/migration and a three-gene signature, TGFBI, IGFBP3, CHI3L1, overexpressed in quiescent cells which correlates with poor GBM patient survival.

Late biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy is associated with a slower rate of progression.

OBJECTIVE: To characterise the pattern of late biochemical recurrence (BCR) in the largest contemporary cohort of patients with localised prostate cancer treated with radical prostatectomy (RP) in the active surveillance era. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Consecutive patients who underwent RP for localised prostate cancer between 2003 and 2017 were identified from a prospectively recorded, dedicated prostate cancer database. Patients who received neoadjuvant androgen-deprivation therapy were excluded. These patients were categorised into the following groups: no BCR, BCR at <12 months (early), BCR at 12-60 months (intermediate), and BCR at >60 months (late), after RP. Clinicopathological characteristics were analysed using the Student's t-test, Mann-Whitney U-test, or chi-squared test where appropriate. Multivariable binomial logistic regression models were used to assess predictors of BCR at various time-points. RESULTS: In all, 2312 patients were included in the final analysis with up to 12 years of follow-up data. The average patient had clinically localised prostate cancer, an elevated PSA level, and International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) Grade Group 2 on biopsy. In all, 88.7% of patients had ISUP Grade Group ≥2 at RP. A subgroup of 446 patients had undetectable PSA levels at 5 years after RP; 11.7% of them progressed to experience BCR. In this subgroup, late recurrers had significantly higher-grade tumours on ISUP and Gleason sum (P <0.001 and P = 0.001, respectively), higher rates of extraprostatic extension (P = 0.022), and larger tumour volumes (P = 0.032). Logistic regression showed that RP ISUP Grade Group was a significant predictor of BCR (odds ratio 2.14, 95% confidence interval 1.43-3.20; P <0.001). CONCLUSION: This study characterises the pattern of late BCR in the largest contemporary active surveillance era cohort. We have identified that RP ISUP Grade Group is a strong predictive indicator for late BCR. We also propose that timing of BCR resides on a continuum of risk and that the potential concept of dormant micrometastatic involvement requires further research and evaluation.

Developments in oligometastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: To review the current understanding and recent developments regarding the concept of oligometastases in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases, including PubMed and Embase was conducted for the search term 'oligometastases' in combinations with 'prostate cancer', 'hormone sensitive', 'genetics', and 'molecular'. All articles relating to these search terms have been taken into account. RESULTS: Prostate cancer remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The majority of these cancer-related deaths result from metastases. Currently, there is a dichotomy in prostate cancer management where it is only deemed curable if it is localized, while any signs of metastasis relegate patients to systemic therapies to delay their inevitable death. A growing body of evidence supports the notion that aggressive treatments during the stable 'oligometastatic' state can have significant clinical benefits and potentially 'reset' prostate cancer to an earlier time point in cancer progression. This concept of oligometastases has been adopted in other cancer settings such as colorectal and non-small-cell lung cancers. CONCLUSION: Multiple clinical and molecular biological studies have been influential in the support of a stable state in metastatic cancer progression coined 'oligometastases'. As our understanding of oligometastases in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer develops, we will be able to molecularly define the oligometastatic state and develop clinically available diagnostic tests. In doing so, prostate cancer patients will experience significant clinical benefits and the burden of prostate cancer worldwide will likely be reduced.

Extracellular vesicles for personalized therapy decision support in advanced metastatic cancers and its potential impact for prostate cancer.

The use of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, as liquid biopsy-derived biomarkers for cancers have been investigated. CTC enumeration using the CellSearch based platform provides an accurate insight on overall survival where higher CTC counts indicate poor prognosis for patients with advanced metastatic cancer. EVs provide information based on their lipid, protein, and nucleic acid content and can be isolated from biofluids and analyzed from a relatively small volume, providing a routine and non-invasive modality to monitor disease progression. Our pilot experiment by assessing the level of two subpopulations of small EVs, the CD9 positive and CD63 positive EVs, showed that the CD9 positive EV level is higher in plasma from patients with advanced metastatic prostate cancer with detectable CTCs. These data show the potential utility of a particular EV subpopulation to serve as biomarkers for advanced metastatic prostate cancer. EVs can potentially be utilized as biomarkers to provide accurate genotypic and phenotypic information for advanced prostate cancer, where new strategies to design a more personalized therapy is currently the focus of considerable investigation.

Routinely reported 'equivocal' lymphovascular invasion in prostatectomy specimens is associated with adverse outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the significance of routinely reported 'equivocal' lymphovascular invasion (LVI) in prostatectomy specimens of patients with clinically localized prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospectively collected data from men who underwent prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer were retrospectively reviewed. Rates of adverse pathological features and biochemical recurrence (BCR) were compared between tumours positive, negative or 'equivocal' for LVI. Multivariable Cox regression analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of BCR. RESULTS: Of 1 310 consecutive cases, LVI was present definitively in 82 (6.3%) and equivocally in 43 (3.3%) cases. Similar to definitive LVI, equivocal LVI was significantly associated with other adverse pathological features, including advanced stage, higher Gleason grade and positive surgical margins. BCR occurred more frequently in patients with tumours that were equivocal (61%) or positive for LVI (71%) than in patients with negative results (14.7%). In addition, patients with both definitive and equivocal LVI had a significantly shorter BCR-free survival time compared with those with negative LVI. Multivariable Cox regression analysis indicated that the presence of either definitive or equivocal LVI were independent predictors of disease recurrence (hazard ratio [HR] 3.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.3-4.8; P <0.001 vs HR 1.66, 95% CI 1.05-2.65; P = 0.032, respectively). CONCLUSION: In this single-institution study, equivocal LVI had a similar association with adverse pathological features and rate of BCR to that of definitive LVI. If our observations are validated in an independent cohort, consideration should be given to the inclusion of equivocal LVI as part of routine pathological reporting.

Sodium selenate retards epileptogenesis in acquired epilepsy models reversing changes in protein phosphatase 2A and hyperphosphorylated tau.

There are no treatments in clinical practice known to mitigate the neurobiological processes that convert a healthy brain into an epileptic one, a phenomenon known as epileptogenesis. Downregulation of protein phosphatase 2A, a protein that causes the hyperphosphorylation of tau, is implicated in neurodegenerative diseases commonly associated with epilepsy, such as Alzheimer's disease and traumatic brain injury. Here we used the protein phosphatase 2A activator sodium selenate to investigate the role of protein phosphatase 2A in three different rat models of epileptogenesis: amygdala kindling, post-kainic acid status epilepticus, and post-traumatic epilepsy. Protein phosphatase 2A activity was decreased, and tau phosphorylation increased, in epileptogenic brain regions in all three models. Continuous sodium selenate treatment mitigated epileptogenesis and prevented the biochemical abnormalities, effects which persisted after drug withdrawal. Our studies indicate that limbic epileptogenesis is associated with downregulation of protein phosphatase 2A and the hyperphosphorylation of tau, and that targeting this mechanism with sodium selenate is a potential anti-epileptogenic therapy.

A urinary microRNA signature can predict the presence of bladder urothelial carcinoma in patients undergoing surveillance.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to determine whether microRNA (miRNA) profiling of urine could identify the presence of urothelial carcinoma of the bladder (UCB) and to compare its performance characteristics to that of cystoscopy. METHODS: In the discovery cohort we screened 81 patients, which included 21 benign controls, 30 non-recurrers and 30 patients with active cancer (recurrers), using a panel of 12 miRNAs. Data analysis was performed using a machine learning approach of a Support Vector Machine classifier with a Student's t-test feature selection procedure. This was trained using a three-fold cross validation approach and performance was measured using the area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC). The miRNA signature was validated in an independent cohort of a further 50 patients. RESULTS: The best predictor to distinguish patients with UCB from non-recurrers was achieved using a combination of six miRNAs (AUC=0.85). This validated in an independent cohort (AUC=0.74) and detected UCB with a high sensitivity (88%) and sufficient specificity (48%) with all significant cancers identified. The performance of the classifier was best in detecting clinically significant disease such as presence of T1 Stage disease (AUC=0.92) and high-volume disease (AUC=0.81). Cystoscopy rates in the validation cohort would have been reduced by 30%. CONCLUSIONS: Urinary profiling using this panel of miRNAs shows promise for detection of tumour recurrence in the surveillance of UCB. Such a panel may be useful in reducing the morbidity and costs associated with cystoscopic surveillance, and now merits prospective evaluation.

Adverse effects of androgen-deprivation therapy in prostate cancer and their management.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an up-to-date summary of current literature on the management of adverse effects of androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT). PATIENTS AND METHODS: All relevant medical literature on men with prostate cancer treated with ADT from 2005 to 2014, and older relevant papers, were reviewed. Recent health advisory statements from the Australian government, societies and advocacy groups have been incorporated to the document. RESULTS: There are numerous adverse effects of ADT that require pro-active prevention and treatment. Ranging from cardiovascular disease, diabetes and osteoporosis, to depression, cognitive decline and sexual dysfunction, the range of adverse effects is wide. Baseline assessment, monitoring, prevention and consultation from a multidisciplinary team are important in minimising the harm from ADT. CONCLUSIONS: This review provides a series of practical recommendations to assist with managing the adverse effects of ADT.

Outcomes of stereotactic radiotherapy for cranial and extracranial metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Stereotactic radiotherapy is a non-invasive, ablative technique which may be particularly effective in treating metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC). The study objective was to analyse outcomes and toxicity of stereotactic radiotherapy in metastatic RCC. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a systematic review of Medline was performed in March 2013. Exclusion criteria included mixed histology studies and case series. Local control, overall survival and toxicities were analysed. RESULTS: From 148 publications identified, 16 and 10 publications for cranial and extracranial metastatic RCC met inclusion criteria, respectively. There were 810 intracranial patients and 2433 targets. The weighted local control was 92%. Overall survival ranged from 6.7 to 25.6 months. Significant Grade 3-4 toxicity ranged from 0% to 6%. The weighted rate of treatment-related mortality was 0.6%, all secondary to intratumoral haemorrhage. There were 389 extracranial patients and 730 targets. The weighted local control was 89%. Median overall survival ranged from 11.7 to 22 months. Grade 3-4 toxicity ranged from 0% to 4%. Treatment-related mortality was 0.5%. CONCLUSION: Stereotactic radiotherapy is associated with excellent local control and low rates of toxicity for intracranial and extracranial metastatic RCC. Future randomised studies are required to confirm the additional benefit of Stereotactic Ablative Body Radiotherapy (SABR) above standard conservative or palliative approaches.

Reducing the risk of false discovery enabling identification of biologically significant genome-wide methylation status using the HumanMethylation450 array.

BACKGROUND: The Illumina HumanMethylation450 BeadChip (HM450K) measures the DNA methylation of 485,512 CpGs in the human genome. The technology relies on hybridization of genomic fragments to probes on the chip. However, certain genomic factors may compromise the ability to measure methylation using the array such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), small insertions and deletions (INDELs), repetitive DNA, and regions with reduced genomic complexity. Currently, there is no clear method or pipeline for determining which of the probes on the HM450K bead array should be retained for subsequent analysis in light of these issues. RESULTS: We comprehensively assessed the effects of SNPs, INDELs, repeats and bisulfite induced reduced genomic complexity by comparing HM450K bead array results with whole genome bisulfite sequencing. We determined which CpG probes provided accurate or noisy signals. From this, we derived a set of high-quality probes that provide unadulterated measurements of DNA methylation. CONCLUSIONS: Our method significantly reduces the risk of false discoveries when using the HM450K bead array, while maximising the power of the array to detect methylation status genome-wide. Additionally, we demonstrate the utility of our method through extraction of biologically relevant epigenetic changes in prostate cancer.

The conservative management of renal trauma: a literature review and practical clinical guideline from Australia and New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE: To review the literature and make practical recommendations regarding the conservative management of renal trauma. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Relevant articles and guidelines published between 1980 and 2014 were reviewed. Graded recommendations were constructed by a multi-disciplinary panel consisting of urologists, radiologists, and infectious disease physicians. These recommendations underwent formal review and debate at the Western Australian USANZ 2013 state conference, and were presented at the USANZ 2014 annual scientific meeting. RESULTS: The literature on the conservative management of renal trauma is reviewed within the framework of the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) kidney injury severity scale. Graded recommendations are made regarding several key topics including: imaging, inpatient management, antibiotics, return to activity, and follow-up. Grade IV injuries and intraoperative consults are examined separately in view of the difficulties these groups cause in making appropriate treatment decisions. CONCLUSION: A practical clinical guideline is provided regarding the conservative management of renal trauma.

Evolution of hormonal therapy for prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignancy after skin cancer in men in Australia. Its management varies according to tumour stage. Due to the significant dependence on androgen receptor signalling, agents that interfere with this pathway (most commonly medical castration in the form of androgen deprivation therapy [ADT]) are the mainstay treatment of advanced disease. OBJECTIVE: This review provides a contemporary update on ADT, with further discussion of emerging novel therapies for primary care. DISCUSSION: ADT is currently indicated for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer, disease recurrence following attempted local curative therapy, as well as combined use with radiotherapy for intermediate/high-risk disease. There has been rapid development of new pharmaceuticals targeting the androgen receptor. These are reviewed historically with an emphasis placed on emerging therapies, their common side effects, and how to manage them in the general practice setting.