Thioredoxin m4 controls photosynthetic alternative electron pathways in Arabidopsis.

In addition to the linear electron flow, a cyclic electron flow (CEF) around photosystem I occurs in chloroplasts. In CEF, electrons flow back from the donor site of photosystem I to the plastoquinone pool via two main routes: one that involves the Proton Gradient Regulation5 (PGR5)/PGRL1 complex (PGR) and one that is dependent of the NADH dehydrogenase-like complex. While the importance of CEF in photosynthesis and photoprotection has been clearly established, little is known about its regulation. We worked on the assumption of a redox regulation and surveyed the putative role of chloroplastic thioredoxins (TRX). Using Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutants lacking different TRX isoforms, we demonstrated in vivo that TRXm4 specifically plays a role in the down-regulation of the NADH dehydrogenase-like complex-dependent plastoquinone reduction pathway. This result was confirmed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants overexpressing the TRXm4 orthologous gene. In vitro assays performed with isolated chloroplasts and purified TRXm4 indicated that TRXm4 negatively controls the PGR pathway as well. The physiological significance of this regulation was investigated under steady-state photosynthesis and in the pgr5 mutant background. Lack of TRXm4 reversed the growth phenotype of the pgr5 mutant, but it did not compensate for the impaired photosynthesis and photoinhibition sensitivity. This suggests that the physiological role of TRXm4 occurs in vivo via a mechanism distinct from direct up-regulation of CEF.

Involvement of thioredoxin y2 in the preservation of leaf methionine sulfoxide reductase capacity and growth under high light.

Methionine (Met) in proteins can be oxidized to two diastereoisomers of methionine sulfoxide, Met-S-O and Met-R-O, which are reduced back to Met by two types of methionine sulfoxide reductases (MSRs), A and B, respectively. MSRs are generally supplied with reducing power by thioredoxins. Plants are characterized by a large number of thioredoxin isoforms, but those providing electrons to MSRs in vivo are not known. Three MSR isoforms, MSRA4, MSRB1 and MSRB2, are present in Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplasts. Under conditions of high light and long photoperiod, plants knockdown for each plastidial MSR type or for both display reduced growth. In contrast, overexpression of plastidial MSRBs is not associated with beneficial effects in terms of growth under high light. To identify the physiological reductants for plastidial MSRs, we analyzed a series of mutants deficient for thioredoxins f, m, x or y. We show that mutant lines lacking both thioredoxins y1 and y2 or only thioredoxin y2 specifically display a significantly reduced leaf MSR capacity (-25%) and growth characteristics under high light, related to those of plants lacking plastidial MSRs. We propose that thioredoxin y2 plays a physiological function in protein repair mechanisms as an electron donor to plastidial MSRs in photosynthetic organs.

Overexpression of plastidial thioredoxins f and m differentially alters photosynthetic activity and response to oxidative stress in tobacco plants.

Plants display a remarkable diversity of thioredoxins (Trxs), reductases controlling the thiol redox status of proteins. The physiological function of many of them remains elusive, particularly for plastidial Trxs f and m, which are presumed based on biochemical data to regulate photosynthetic reactions and carbon metabolism. Recent reports revealed that Trxs f and m participate in vivo in the control of starch metabolism and cyclic photosynthetic electron transfer around photosystem I, respectively. To further delineate their in planta function, we compared the photosynthetic characteristics, the level and/or activity of various Trx targets and the responses to oxidative stress in transplastomic tobacco plants overexpressing either Trx f or Trx m. We found that plants overexpressing Trx m specifically exhibit altered growth, reduced chlorophyll content, impaired photosynthetic linear electron transfer and decreased pools of glutathione and ascorbate. In both transplastomic lines, activities of two enzymes involved in carbon metabolism, NADP-malate dehydrogenase and NADP-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase are markedly and similarly altered. In contrast, plants overexpressing Trx m specifically display increased capacity for methionine sulfoxide reductases, enzymes repairing damaged proteins by regenerating methionine from oxidized methionine. Finally, we also observed that transplastomic plants exhibit distinct responses when exposed to oxidative stress conditions generated by methyl viologen or exposure to high light combined with low temperature, the plants overexpressing Trx m being notably more tolerant than Wt and those overexpressing Trx f. Altogether, these data indicate that Trxs f and m fulfill distinct physiological functions. They prompt us to propose that the m type is involved in key processes linking photosynthetic activity, redox homeostasis and antioxidant mechanisms in the chloroplast.