Psychometric properties of the Jefferson Empathy Scale in four nursing student faculties.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Jefferson Medical Empathy Scale, Spanish version (JSE-S), its factorial structure, reliability, and the presence of invariance between genders in the behavior of empathy levels among Chilean nursing students. METHOD: Instrumental research design. The JSE-S was applied to 1,320 nursing students. A confirmatory factor analysis was used. An invariance study between genders was carried out. Descriptive statistics were estimated. Between genders, Student's T distribution was applied alongside a homoscedasticity analysis. The level of significance was α ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: The confirmatory factor analysis determined the existence of three dimensions in the matrix. The statistical results of the invariance tests were significant, and allowed comparison between genders. Differences were found between mean empathy values, as well as in some of its dimensions between genders. CONCLUSION: The factor structure of empathy data and its dimensions is in correspondence with the underlying three-dimensional model. There are differences in empathy levels and their dimensions between genders, with the exception of the compassionate care dimension, which was distributed similarly. Women were more empathetic than men.

Chilean Dentistry students, levels of empathy and empathic erosion: Necessary evaluation before a planned intervention: Levels of empathy, evaluation and intervention.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the general empathy levels and the potential for empathic growth in Dentistry students and demonstrate that the empathic erosion model is not med. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Exploratory and cross-sectional study. Population: First- to fifth-year Dentistry students at Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago Campus (Chile). The total student population (N) was 800. The participants completed the Jefferson Scale of Empathy in its Spanish version for medical students, validated and adapted in Chile. A two-factor analysis of variance (model III) was applied to find differences in the means between academic years, between genders, and in the interaction between these two factors. The data were described using simple arithmetic graphs and then processed with SPSS 22.0. The total growth potential was estimated. RESULTS: The Sample (n) consisted of 534 students (66.88% of the population studied, 2016). Differences were found between academic years and genders in general empathy and some of its components. CONCLUSION: The behavior of empathy levels is not in line with the concept of empathic erosion. This suggests that empathic erosion is a particular and not a general phenomenon. There exists a considerable growth potential for empathy and its components.

Family Functioning as a Possible Factor that Modulates Empathy Levels in Dental Students

Aim: The objective of this paper is to explore whether there are differences in the levels of empathy and its dimensions between family typologies in dental students. Methodology: A quantitative and not experimental study, with a cross-sectional descriptive design, a population of dental students from the Evangelical University of El Salvador, and a convenience sample were applied. The levels of empathy and family functioning were evaluated using the Jefferson Scale of Empathy for Health Professions students and the Brief Scale of Family Functioning. The construct validity of both instruments was estimated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The reliability was estimated using McDonald's omega and Cronbach's alpha. Comparisons of empathy and its dimensions between family typologies were made using a two-factor analysis of variance. Results: No statistical differences were observed in empathy and its dimensions based on family typologies. It was found that women are more empathic than men. This result is not in accordance with other studies carried out in Latin America on dental and medical students evaluating empathy and family functioning with the same instruments. Conclusions: The distribution of empathy levels and their dimensions are similar among the family typologies studied. Therefore, it was not found that family functioning can influence empathy in the population studied. It is necessary to continue these studies to obtain more empirical evidence regarding the influence of family functioning on empathy.

Objetivo: El objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar la existencia de diferencias de los niveles de empatía y de sus dimensiones entre las tipologías familiares en estudiantes de odontología. Metodología: Estudio cuantitativo y no experimental, con un diseño descriptivo transversal, una población de estudiantes de odontología de la Universidad Evangélica de El Salvador y una muestra por conveniencia. Fueron evaluados los niveles de empatía y el funcionamiento familiar mediante la Escala de Empatía de Jefferson para estudiantes de profesiones de la salud y la Escala Breve de Funcionamiento Familiar. Se estimó la validez de constructo de ambos instrumentos mediante Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio y la confiabilidad mediante omega de McDonald y alfa de Cronbach. Las comparaciones de la empatía y sus dimensiones entre las tipologías familiares fueron realizadas mediante análisis de varianza bifactorial. Resultados: No se observaron diferencias estadísticas en la empatía y en sus dimensiones en función de las tipologías familiares. Se encontró que las mujeres son más empáticas que los hombres. Este resultado no está en concordancia con otros estudios realizados en América Latina en estudiantes de odontología y medicina, evaluando la empatía y el funcionamiento familiar con los mismos instrumentos. Conclusiones: La distribución de los niveles de empatía y de sus dimensiones son semejantes entre las tipologías familiares estudiadas. Por lo tanto, no se constató que el funcionamiento familiar tenga un efecto sobre la empatía en la población estudiada. Es necesario continuar estos estudios para obtener mayor evidencia empírica respecto de la influencia del funcionamiento familiar en la empatía.

Empathy levels among dental students and professors from a dental school in the Dominican Republic / Empatía en estudiantes y profesores de una escuela de odontología de República Dominicana

Abstract Introduction: The concept of empathy has been incorporated as one of the key elements for the achievement of the teaching-learning process goals in health science students. Objective: To estimate and compare the levels of empathy among dental students and professors in the undergraduate dental medicine program at the Universidad Central del Este (Dominican Republic). Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study. The study population (n=264) was divided into two groups: the first consisted of students in their first to fifth year of dental school (N=223; n=215), distributed in two areas (basic-preclinical and clinical courses), while the second group comprised professors working in both areas in the dental school of the university (N=53; n=49). The Jefferson Scale of Empathy (S-Version) was used. The descriptive analysis of the data included the estimation of means, standard deviations and percentages, and the reliability of the data was estimated using Cronbach's alpha. In addition, a two-way ANOVA was performed, calculating the effect size and the statistical power of the test; furthermore, when the Fisher's exact test was significant for any factor, Tukey's test was used to estimate differences between means. A significance level of α<0.05 and β<0.20 was established. Results: Overall empathy scores and compassionate care dimension scores among the professor group did not differ significantly from the scores obtained by the students (basic-preclinical and clinical area), but there were differences between students from both areas (p<0.05). There were no significant differences between the three subgroups in the Perspective Taking and Walking in the Patient's Shoes dimensions (p=0.428 and p=0.866). Conclusion: The levels of empathy and compassionate care dimension of professors are similar to those of students in general (regardless of the area).

Resumen Introducción. El concepto de empatía se ha integrado como uno de los elementos centrales para el logro final del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje en estudiantes de ciencias de la salud. Objetivo. Estimar y comparar los niveles de empatía entre estudiantes y profesores de pregrado de odontología de la Universidad Central del Este (República Dominicana). Materiales y métodos. Estudio transversal. La población de estudio (n=264) se dividió en dos grupos: el primero, compuesto por estudiantes de primero a quinto año de la carrera de odontología (N=223; n=215) distribuidos en dos áreas (básica-preclínica y clínica), y el segundo, por los docentes de ambas áreas en la escuela de odontología de la universidad (N=53; n=49). Se utilizó la Escala de Empatía Médica de Jefferson (Versión-S). El análisis descriptivo de los datos incluyó la estimación de medias, desviaciones estándar y porcentajes, y la confiabilidad de los datos se estimó mediante CC de Cronbach; además, se realizó un ANOVA bifactorial, calculándose el tamaño del efecto y la potencia de la prueba, y en los casos en que la prueba exacta de Fisher fue significativa para algún factor, se utilizó la prueba de Tukey para estimar las diferencias entre las medias. El nivel de significancia estadística utilizado fue α<0.05 y β<0.20. Resultados. Los valores globales de empatía y de la dimensión Cuidado con compasión en los profesores no difirieron significativamente con los obtenidos por los estudiantes (área básica-preclínica y clínica), pero sí hubo diferencias entre los estudiantes de ambas áreas (p<0.05). En las dimensiones Adopción de perspectiva y Ponerse en los zapatos del otro no existieron diferencias entre los tres subgrupos (p=0.428 y p=0.866). Conclusión. Los niveles de empatía y de la dimensión Cuidado compasivo de los profesores no difieren de los de los estudiantes en general (ambas áreas).

Empathy in Professors and Students of a School of Dentistry in the Caribbean

Abstract Objective: To estimate and compare the levels of empathy between undergraduate dentistry students and professors at a university in the Dominican Republic. Material and Methods: Cross-sectional and descriptive study. The studied population consisted of two groups. The first: students of the Dentistry Career (N=520; n=335: 64.42% of total students) were distributed in two areas, basic-preclinical and clinical, while the second group corresponded of teachers who work in both areas (N=92; n=56; 60.87% of all teachers). The total sample was n = 391. The Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (S-Version) was used. Reliability was estimated using Cronbach's α and intraclass correlation coefficient, descriptive statistics, two-way analysis of variance, Tukey's test, effect size, and power of the test. Significance level: α≤0.05 and β≤0.20. Results: The empathy and dimension values were, in general, higher in the professors of the clinical area in relation to the other areas studied, with the exception of the compassionate care dimension. Conclusion: The finding that clinical teachers have a greater value of empathy is potentially an advantage for training students, especially in the clinical area (AU).

Reconsidering the 'Decline' of Dental Student Empathy within the Course in Latin America.

INTRODUCTION: The controversy over the presence of empathic decline within the course in students of medicine, dentistry and health sciences in general, has not fully been studied. This controversy could be partially solved if massive studies of empathy levels are made in similar cultural, social and economic contexts. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Empathy levels within the course were studied in eighteen dental schools from six countries in Latin America (2013). The mean of the empathy levels were used to study the behavior between first and fifth academic years. The values of empathy levels within the course were observed by applying the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy, the Spanish version. All these studies were cross-sectional. The value of means observed, were subjected to regression studies and further adjustment curves were obtained and the coefficient of determination were calculated. RESULTS: Six different models of behavior were observed, which found that five of them suffer empathic decline within the course, but with different final results: in some the decline persists until the fifth academic year and in others, this decline 'recovers' persistently until the fifth academic year. The sixth model is characterized by a constant and persistent increase of levels of empathy within the course until the last academic year. DISCUSSION: There are six different models for the behavior of means of levels of empathy within the course evaluated by a common methodology in eighteen dental schools from six countries of Latin America. These findings support the existence of variability of empathic response and a comprehensive approach is needed to find the causes that give rise to this variability. CONCLUSION: In dental students of Latin America, there is variability in the behavior of the distribution in means between the academic years of the dentistry schools examined in this study.

Introdução: A controvérsia sobre o declínio da empatia relativamente ao curso em estudantes de Medicina, Odontologia e Ciências da Saúde em geral ainda não foi completamente elucidada. Esta controvérsia poderia ser parcialmente solucionada se fossem realizados estudos significativos sobre os níveis de empatia em contextos culturais, sociais e económicos similares. Material e Métodos: Foram estudados os níveis de empatia com o curso em dezoito escolas de Odontologia de seis países na América Latina (2013). As médias dos níveis de empatia foram usadas para estudar o comportamento entre académicos do primeiro e quinto anos. Os valores de níveis de empatia para com o curso foram observados aplicando a versão em espanhol da escala Jefferson de Empatia Médica. Todos estes estudos foram transversais. O valor das médias observadas sujeito a tratamento estatístico de regressão, obtendo-se as subsequentes curvas de ajustes e calculado o coeficiente de determinação. Resultados: Foram observados seis diferentes modelos de comportamento, sendo que em cinco deles se verificou declínio da empatia, com diferentes resultados finais: em alguns, o declínio persistiu até o quinto ano académico e, em outros, o declínio 'recuperou-se' persistentemente até ao quinto ano académico. O sexto modelo caracterizou-se por um constante e persistente aumento nos níveis de empatia com o curso até o último ano académico. Discussão: Existem seis modelos diferentes para o comportamento das médias dos níveis de empatia para com o curso, avaliados por uma metodologia comum em dezoito escolas de Odontologia de seis países na América Latina. Estes resultados suportam a existência de variabilidade de resposta empática, sendo necessária uma abordagem compreensiva para encontrar as suas causas. Conclusão: Em estudantes de Odontologia da América Latina verifica-se variabilidade no comportamento da distribuição de meios entre os anos acadêmicos das escolas de odontologia examinadas neste trabalho.

Trends in HIV Infection Incidence in a Mostly Mining Population

Objective: To determine the trends in the incidence of HIV infection in the Atacama region, Chile, according to age and sex, for the 2010-2017 period. Material and Methods: Analysis from the database of confirmed HIV-positive diagnosis cases. HIV incidence rates were made up from confirmed HIV cases adjusted by year, age, and sex, with population denominators from the INE. General and specific trend analysis was performed using regression equations. Results: The groups with the highest incidence of HIV infection were: 20-29 years, 30-39 years, and 40-49 years. The analysis of the curve and its general trend showed that the growth curve of the 20-29 years group is the strongest. Adjusting for sex, it was observed that, in men, the 20-29 years group has the strongest growth and growth forecast of all groups, followed by men aged 50-59 years. In the case of women, the 50-59 and 60-69 age groups are the fastest growing, however, it is a slower growth in relation to the men's group. Conclusions: Chile has one of the fastest growing HIV epidemics in the world. We estimate that the most incidental groups are linked to the mining population, which denotes the importance of the relationship between mining activity and the high incidence of HIV infection. The results suggest the need for prevention and early detection of the sources of HIV infection and the need to adapt strategies in this population. It is necessary to close the gap of HIV-positive people who do not know their health status, in order to stop the spread of HIV among miners and in the communities surrounding the mining industry.

Objetivo: Determinar las tendencias de la incidencia del contagio por VIH en la región de Atacama, Chile, según edad y sexo, para el período 2010-2017. Materiales y Métodos: Análisis desde la base de datos de casos confirmados de diagnóstico de VIH positivos. Las tasas de incidencia de VIH se confeccionaron a partir de los casos confirmados por VIH ajustados por año, edad y sexo, con denominadores poblacionales del INE. Se realizó un análisis de tendencia general y específica mediante ecuaciones de regresión. Resultados: Los grupos con mayor incidencia de infección por VIH fueron: 20-29 años, 3039 años y 40-49 años. El análisis de la curva y su tendencia general mostró que la curva de crecimiento del grupo 20-29 años es la más fuerte. Ajustando por sexo, se observó que en los hombres del grupo 20-29 años el crecimiento y el pronóstico de crecimiento es el más fuerte de todos los grupos, seguido por hombres de 50-59 años. En el caso de las mujeres, los grupos más incidentes fueron 50-59 y 60-69 años. Conclusiones: Chile tiene una de las epidemias de VIH de más rápido crecimiento en el mundo. Estimamos que los grupos más incidentes están vinculados a la población minera, lo que denota la importancia de la relación existente entre la actividad minera y la alta incidencia del contagio por VIH. Los resultados sugieren la necesidad de prevenir y pesquisar tempranamente las fuentes de infección por VIH y adaptar las estrategias en esta población.

Decline in empathy levels and sex differences in medical students from the Caribbean / Declinación empática y diferencias según el sexo en estudiantes de medicina del Caribe

Abstract Introduction: Empathy is an important trait in the training of medical students, as it has been shown that it improves the doctor-patient relationship. Objective: To evaluate the decline of empathy levels and possible sex differences in undergraduate medical students from the Universidad Central del Este, Dominican Republic. Materials and methods: Exploratory cross-sectional study. A Spanish version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy for Medical Students (S-version) Scale was administered in September 2018 to 1 144 1st-year to 5th-year medical students (887 women and 257 men). Data reliability was verified using the Cronbach's alpha and the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). A generalized linear equation model (Type III) was applied to analyze data and the Wald chi-squared test was used to determine differences in overall empathy levels and the mean scores obtained in each of its three components based on the year of medical training and sex. Results: Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory (0.839), and the ICC was 0.834 (F=5.68; p=0.005). The variability of the estimated curves in relation to empathic behavior by course (year of medical training) and sex was observed using linear and non-linear regression equations: Wald x2=115.6, p=0.0001 between courses; and Wald x2 =12.85, p=0.001 between men and women. Conclusions: Sex differences were observed regarding empathy levels in the study population. Moreover, a decline in empathy levels (overall empathy and Compassionate Care component in men and Walking in the Patient's Shoes component in men and women) was also observed as students progressed in their medical training. The behavior of these data raises questions regarding the need to determine the factors causing these differences and the decline in empathy levels.

Resumen Introducción. La empatia es un rasgo importante en los estudiantes de medicina, ya que se ha demostrado que mejora la relación médico-paciente. Objetivo. Evaluar la declinación empática y las posibles diferencias según el sexo en los niveles de empatia en estudiantes de pregrado de Medicina en la Universidad Central del Este, República Dominicana. Materiales y métodos. Estudio exploratorio transversal. La versión en español de la Escala de Empatia de Jefferson adaptada para estudiantes de medicina (versión S) fue aplicada a 1 144 estudiantes de medicina de 1° a 5° año (887 mujeres y 257 hombres). La confiabilidad de los datos se verificó mediante el alfa de Cronbach y el coeficiente de correlación intraclase (CCI). Los datos se analizaron utilizando un modelo de ecuación lineal generalizada (Tipo III) y se utilizó la prueba x2 de Wald para determinar las diferencias en los niveles globales de empatia y los puntajes promedio de sus tres componentes según el año de formación y el sexo. Resultados. El alfa de Cronbach fue satisfactorio (0.839) y el CCI fue de 0.834 (F=5.68; p=0.005). Mediante ecuaciones de regresión lineal y no lineal se observó variabilidad de las curvas estimadas en relación con el comportamiento empático según el curso (año de formación médica) y el sexo: entre cursos: x2 de Wald= 115.6; p=0.000i, y entre hombres y mujeres: x2 de Wald= 12.85; p=0.001). Conclusiones. Se observaron diferencias en los niveles de empatia según el sexo; también se evidenció una declinación en los niveles de empatia (empatia global y componente Cuidado con compasión en los hombres, y en el componente Ponerse en los zapatos del otro en hombres y mujeres) a medida que los estudiantes avanzaban en su formación. El comportamiento de estos datos genera interrogantes relacionados con la necesidad de determinar los factores que causan estas diferencias y dicha declinación empática.

Empathy in Nursing Students. Cross-sectional Study / Empatía en estudiantes de enfermería. Estudio transversal

ABSTRACT Objective: To estimate the levels of empathy in students enrolled in the nursing program. Material and methods. Data Sources: The population consists of students from the first to the fifth academic year (Course) (N = 312, n = 253, 81.08% of the population). Selection of studies: Exploratory and cross-sectional study. Data extraction: The authors collected the information between January and February 2018. Participants answered the Jefferson Medical Scale of Empathy, the Spanish version for medical students (S version), validated and adapted for nursing students in Colombia. Results. Synthesis of the data: Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory (not typifed = 0.891 and typified = 0.886), from which it is inferred that the data has internal reliability. The interclass correlation coefficient was 0.891; CI [0.87, 0.909] (F = 9.15, p = 0.005): confirms the good reliability. The authors observed that in empathy, this coefficient was highly significant in all three factors, with the eta-square value satisfactory and a high power observed. The significance level used was a < 0.05 and P <0.20. Conclusions: The manifestation of the levels of empathy observed in this study agrees with the concept of empathic erosion, especially when analyzing empathic behavior in the male gender. The empathy levels in the students examined are relatively low, and authors conclude that there is considerable potential for growth of empathy and that of its components. Empathy is a complex part of academic formation that cannot be seen as an isolated variable.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Estimar los niveles de empatia en estudiantes matriculados en un programa de enfermería. Material y Métodos. Fuentes de datos: La población está compuesta por estudiantes del primer al quinto año académico (Curso) (N = 312, n = 253, 81.08% de la población). Selección de estudios: Estudio exploratorio y transversal. Extracción de datos: La información se recopiló entre enero y febrero de 2018. Los participantes respondieron la Escala de Empatía Médica de Jefferson (S)validada y adaptada para estudiantes de enfermería en Colombia. Resultados. Síntesis de los datos: El alfa de Cronbach fue satisfactorio (no tipificado = 0,891 y tipificado = 0,886): de manera que los datos tienen fiabilidad interna. El coeficiente de correlación interclase fue de 0,891; IC [0.87, 0.909] (F = 9.15, p = 0.005): este confirma la buena confiabilidad. Se observó que, en la empatía, el coeficiente de correlación intraclase fue altamente significativo en los tres factores; con el valor eta-cuadrado satisfactorio y la potencia observada alta. El nivel de significación utilizado fue a < 0.05 y P <0.20. Conclusiones: La manifestación de los niveles de empatía observados en este estudio coincide con el concepto de erosión empática, especialmente cuando se analiza el comportamiento empático en el género masculino. En general, los niveles de empatía en los estudiantes examinados son relativamente bajos y se ha demostrado que existe un potencial considerable para el crecimiento de la empatía y de sus componentes. La empatía es una parte compleja de la formación académica que no puede verse como una variable aislada.

Psychometric properties of the Jefferson Empathy Scale in four nursing student faculties / Propriedades psicométricas da Jefferson Empathy Scale em quatro faculdades de estudantes de enfermagem / Propiedades psicométricas de la Jefferson Empathy Scale en cuatro facultades de estudiantes de enfermería

ABSTRACT Objective To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Jefferson Medical Empathy Scale, Spanish version (JSE-S), its factorial structure, reliability, and the presence of invariance between genders in the behavior of empathy levels among Chilean nursing students. Method Instrumental research design. The JSE-S was applied to 1,320 nursing students. A confirmatory factor analysis was used. An invariance study between genders was carried out. Descriptive statistics were estimated. Between genders, Student's T distribution was applied alongside a homoscedasticity analysis. The level of significance was α ≤ 0.05. Results The confirmatory factor analysis determined the existence of three dimensions in the matrix. The statistical results of the invariance tests were significant, and allowed comparison between genders. Differences were found between mean empathy values, as well as in some of its dimensions between genders. Conclusion The factor structure of empathy data and its dimensions is in correspondence with the underlying three-dimensional model. There are differences in empathy levels and their dimensions between genders, with the exception of the compassionate care dimension, which was distributed similarly. Women were more empathetic than men.

RESUMO Objetivo Avaliar as propriedades psicométricas da Jefferson Medical Empathy Scale , versão em espanhol (JSE-S), sua estrutura fatorial, confiabilidade e a presença de invariância entre os sexos no comportamento dos níveis de empatia entre estudantes de enfermagem chilenos. Método Desenho de pesquisa instrumental. O JSE-S foi aplicado a 1.320 estudantes de enfermagem. Uma análise fatorial confirmatória foi usada. Foi realizado um estudo de invariância entre os gêneros. Estatísticas descritivas foram estimadas. Entre os gêneros, a distribuição T de Student foi aplicada juntamente com uma análise de homocedasticidade. O nível de significância adotado foi α ≤ 0,05. Resultados A análise fatorial confirmatória determinou a existência de três dimensões na matriz. Os resultados estatísticos dos testes de invariância foram significativos e permitiram a comparação entre os gêneros. Foram encontradas diferenças entre os valores médios de empatia, bem como em algumas de suas dimensões entre os gêneros. Conclusão A estrutura fatorial dos dados de empatia e suas dimensões está em correspondência com o modelo tridimensional subjacente. Existem diferenças nos níveis de empatia e suas dimensões entre os gêneros, com exceção da dimensão do cuidado compassivo, que se distribuiu de forma semelhante. As mulheres eram mais empáticas do que os homens.

RESUMEN Objetivo Evaluar las propiedades psicométricas de la Jefferson Medical Empathy Scale , versión en español (JSE-S), su estructura factorial, confiabilidad y la presencia de invariancia entre géneros en el comportamiento de los niveles de empatía entre estudiantes de enfermería chilenos. Método Diseño de investigación instrumental. La JSE-S se aplicó a 1.320 estudiantes de enfermería. Se utilizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio. Se realizó un estudio de invariancia entre géneros. Se estimaron estadísticas descriptivas. Entre los géneros, la distribución T de Student se aplicó junto con el análisis de homocedasticidad. El nivel de significancia fue α ≤ 0,05. Resultados El análisis factorial confirmatorio determinó la existencia de tres dimensiones en la matriz. Los resultados estadísticos de las pruebas de invariancia fueron significativos y permitieron la comparación entre géneros. Se encontraron diferencias entre los valores medios de empatía, así como en algunas de sus dimensiones entre géneros. Conclusión La estructura factorial de los datos de empatía y sus dimensiones está en correspondencia con el modelo tridimensional subyacente. Existen diferencias en los niveles de empatía y sus dimensiones entre géneros, a excepción de la dimensión de cuidado compasivo, que se distribuyó de manera similar. Las mujeres eran más empáticas que los hombres.