Exploring US internal medicine resident career preferences: a Q-methodology study.

Career selection in medicine is a complex and underexplored process. Most medical career studies performed in the U.S. focused on the effect of demographic variables and medical education debt on career choice. Considering ongoing U.S. physician workforce shortages and the trilateral adaptive model of career decision making, a robust assessment of professional attitudes and work-life preferences is necessary. The objective of this study was to explore and define the dominant viewpoints related to career choice selection in a cohort of U.S. IM residents. We administered an electronic Q-sort in which 218 IM residents sorted 50 statements reflecting the spectrum of opinions that influence postgraduate career choice decisions. Participants provided comments that explained the reasoning behind their individual responses. In the final year of residency training, we ascertained participating residents' chosen career. Factor analysis grouped similar sorts and revealed four distinct viewpoints. We characterized the viewpoints as "Fellowship-Bound-Academic," "Altruistic-Longitudinal-Generalist," "Inpatient-Burnout-Aware," and "Lifestyle-Focused-Consultant." There is concordance between residents who loaded significantly onto a viewpoint and their ultimate career choice. Four dominant career choice viewpoints were found among contemporary U.S. IM residents. These viewpoints reflect the intersection of competing priorities, personal interests, professional identity, socio-economic factors, and work/life satisfaction. Better appreciation of determinants of IM residents' career choices may help address workforce shortages and enhance professional satisfaction.

Relationship Between Confidence, Gender, and Career Choice in Internal Medicine.

BACKGROUND: Understanding factors in internal medicine (IM) resident career choice may reveal important needed interventions for recruitment and diversity in IM primary care and its subspecialties. Self-reported learner confidence is higher in men than in women in certain areas of practicing medicine, but has never been explored as a factor in career choice. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to elucidate associations between confidence, gender, and career choice. DESIGN: IM residents completed a 31-item survey rating confidence in procedural, clinical, and communication skills on a 9-point Likert scale. Residents also reported anticipated career choice and rated influence of factors. Associations between gender and confidence scale scores, gender and career choice, and confidence and career choice were analyzed using t tests, ANOVA, and multiple linear regression controlled for postgraduate year (PGY), institution, and specialty choice. PARTICIPANTS: 292 IM residents at Northwestern and University of Texas (UT) Southwestern MAIN MEASURES: Resident gender, self-reported confidence, career choice KEY RESULTS: Response rate was 79.6% (n = 292), of them 50.3% women. Overall self-reported confidence increased with training (PGY-1 4.9 (1.1); PGY-2 6.2 (1.0); PGY-3 7.4 (1.0); p < 0.001). Men had higher confidence than women (men 6.6 (1.5); women 6.3 (1.4), p = 0.06), with the greatest difference in procedures. High confidence in men was associated with choice of procedural careers, whereas there was no association between confidence and career in women. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study demonstrating a gender difference in self-reported confidence and career choice. There is a positive correlation in men: higher self-reported confidence with procedural specialties, lower with general internal medicine. Women's self-reported confidence had no association. Further investigation is needed to elucidate causative factors for differences in self-reported confidence by gender, and whether alterations in level of self-reported confidence produce a downstream effect on career choice.

Identifying and addressing social determinants of health in outpatient practice: results of a program-wide survey of internal and family medicine residents.

BACKGROUND: Up to 60% of preventable mortality is attributable to social determinants of health (SDOH), yet training on SDOH competencies is not widely implemented in residency. The objective of this study was to assess internal and family medicine residents' competence at identifying and addressing SDOH. METHODS: Residents' perceived competence at identifying, discussing, and addressing SDOH in outpatient settings was assessed using a single questionnaire administered in March 2017. In this cross-sectional analysis, bivariate associations of resident characteristics with the following outcomes were examined: identifying, discussing, and addressing patients' challenges related to SDOH through referrals. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 129 (84%) residents. Twenty residents (16%) reported an annual income of less than $50,000 during childhood. Overall, 108 residents (84%) reported previous SDOH training. Two-thirds had outpatient practices in Veterans Affairs or safety-net clinics. Thirty-nine (30%) intended to pursue a career in primary care. The following numbers of residents reported high levels of competence for performing these outcomes: identifying patients' challenges related to SDOH: 37 (29%); discussing them with patients: 18 (14%); and addressing these challenges through referrals to internal and external resources: 13 (10%) and 11 (9%), respectively. Factors associated with higher competence included older age, lower childhood household income, prior education about SDOH, primary practice site and intention to practice primary care. CONCLUSIONS: Most residents had previous SDOH training, yet only a small proportion of residents reported being highly competent at identifying or addressing SDOH. Providing opportunities for practical training may be a key component in preparing medical residents to identify and address SDOH effectively in outpatient practice.

Altered mental status in a young, healthy female.

A young previously healthy patient presented with fever and altered mental status. Her evaluation would eventually reveal a profound hyponatremia in the setting of a viral meningoencephalitis. This case report reviews the evaluation of hyponatremia and treatment options for syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion, her ultimate diagnosis.

Designing a Checklist for Directly Observing Use of One-Minute Preceptor Steps on Inpatient Rounds: A Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: "One-minute preceptor" (OMP) is a well-established educational technique; however, primary literature on OMP lacks a tool to assess behavioral change after delivery of curricula.Primary aim of this pilot study was to design a checklist for direct observation of teachers using OMP on general medicine rounds and obtain inter-rater reliability evidence for the checklist. METHODS: This study pilots an internally designed 6-item checklist to assess change in directly observed behavior. We describe the process of developing the checklist and training the observers. We calculated a percent agreement and Cohen's kappa to assess inter-rater reliability. RESULTS: Raters had a high percent agreement ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 for each step of OMP. Cohen's kappa ranged from 0.49 to 0.77 for the five OMP steps. The highest kappa obtained was for getting a commitment (κ = 0.77) step, whereas the lowest agreement was for correcting mistakes (κ = 0.49). CONCLUSION: We showed a percent agreement ≥0.8 and moderate agreement based on Cohen's kappa with most steps of OMP on our checklist. A reliable OMP checklist is an important step in further improving the assessment and feedback of resident teaching skills on general medicine wards.

Therapeutic case conference from Northwestern: an elderly gentleman with an unsteady gait.

We provide a Therapeutic Conference from Northwestern based on the case of a 63-year-old man who presented with cerebellar ataxia in the setting of a negative workup for a cerebrovascular event, toxic-metabolic, and infectious etiologies and was ultimately diagnosed with a paraneoplastic syndrome secondary to limited-stage small cell lung cancer. A discussion of the clinical management including diagnostic workup and treatment of cerebellar ataxia paraneoplastic syndrome and limited-stage small cell lung cancer is provided. We also discuss the mechanisms of action of chemotherapy used to treat limited-stage small cell lung cancer and potential side effects associated with these agents.

Impact of an electronic alert and order set on smoking cessation medication prescription.

INTRODUCTION: Tobacco cessation medication use increases the likelihood of a successful quit attempt, but few smokers are prescribed medications. Electronic health records (EHRs) may increase cessation medication prescription. This study aimed to assess the impact of an electronic alert and linked order set on cessation medication prescription. METHODS: This pre- and postintervention cohort study was conducted in an urban academic general internal medicine practice with a comprehensive EHR. All active smokers with 2 or more visits to the practice in 2008 (preintervention cohort) or 2009 (postintervention cohort) were included. An electronic alert and linked order set were designed and implemented. The primary outcome was prescription of any cessation medication (nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion, or varenicline). Secondary outcomes included counseling referral and change in smoking status to quit during the study period (i.e., "quit rate"). RESULTS: There were 1,349 and 1,346 smokers in the pre- and postintervention cohorts, respectively. Cessation medication prescription did not significantly change after the intervention (14.4% vs. 13.4% of smokers in the preintervention cohort, p = .5). Counseling referrals increased from 2.0% to 7.2% in the postintervention cohort (p < .001). More smokers in the postintervention cohort changed their smoking status to quit during the study period (20.5% vs. 17.1%, p = .06). CONCLUSIONS: This provider-directed electronic alert and linked order set failed to increase cessation medication prescription. The consistent failure of provider-directed efforts to increase cessation medication use suggests that this is a patient-limited process. Future efforts to improve tobacco treatment should focus on overcoming patient-level barriers to cessation medication use.

Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines for Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery.

Importance: Laser-assisted drug delivery (LADD) is used for various medical and cosmetic applications. However, there is insufficient evidence-based guidance to assist clinicians performing LADD. Objective: To develop recommendations for the safe and effective use of LADD. Evidence Review: A systematic literature review of Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Embase, and MEDLINE was conducted in December 2019 to identify publications reporting research on LADD. A multidisciplinary panel was convened to draft recommendations informed by the systematic review; they were refined through 2 rounds of Delphi survey, 2 consensus meetings, and iterative review by all panelists until unanimous consensus was achieved. Findings: Of the 48 published studies of ablative fractional LADD that met inclusion criteria, 4 were cosmetic studies; 21, oncologic; and 23, medical (not cosmetic/oncologic), and 6 publications of nonablative fractional LADD were included at the request of the expert panel, producing a total of 54 studies. Thirty-four studies (63.0%) were deemed to have low risk of bias, 17 studies (31.5%) had moderate risk, and 3 (5.5%) had serious risk. The key findings that informed the guidelines developed by the expert panel were as follows: LADD is safe in adults and adolescents (≥12 years) with all Fitzpatrick skin types and in patients with immunosuppression; it is an effective treatment for actinic keratosis, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in situ, actinic cheilitis, hypertrophic scars, and keloids; it is useful for epidermal and dermal analgesia; drug delivery may be increased through the application of heat, pressure, or occlusion, or by using an aqueous drug solution; laser settings should be selected to ensure that channel diameter is greater than the delivered molecule; antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended, except with impaired wound healing; antiviral prophylaxis is recommended when treating the face and genitalia; and antifungal prophylaxis is not recommended. The guideline's 15 recommendations address 5 areas of LADD use: (I) indications and contraindications; (II) parameters to report; (III) optimization of drug delivery; (IV) safety considerations; and (V) prophylaxis for bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Conclusions and Relevance: This systematic review and Delphi consensus approach culminated in an evidence-based clinical practice guideline for safe and effective use of LADD in a variety of applications. Future research will further improve our understanding of this novel treatment technique.

Association Between Internal Medicine Residency Applicant Characteristics and Performance on ACGME Milestones During Intern Year.

BACKGROUND: Residency programs apply varying criteria to the resident selection process. However, it is unclear which applicant characteristics reflect preparedness for residency. OBJECTIVE: We determined the applicant characteristics associated with first-year performance in internal medicine residency as assessed by performance on Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Milestones. METHODS: We examined the association between applicant characteristics and performance on ACGME Milestones during intern year for individuals entering Northwestern University's internal medicine residency between 2013 and 2018. We used bivariate analysis and a multivariable linear regression model to determine the association between individual factors and Milestone performance. RESULTS: Of 203 eligible residents, 198 (98%) were included in the final sample. One hundred fourteen residents (58%) were female, and 116 residents (59%) were White. Mean Step 1 and Step 2 CK scores were 245.5 (SD 12.0) and 258 (SD 10.8) respectively. Step 1 scores, Alpha Omega Alpha membership, medicine clerkship grades, and interview scores were not associated with Milestone performance in the bivariate analysis and were not included in the multivariable model. In the multivariable model, overall clerkship grades, ranking of the medical school, and year entering residency were significantly associated with Milestone performance (P ≤ .04). CONCLUSIONS: Most traditional metrics used in residency selection were not associated with early performance on ACGME Milestones during internal medicine residency.

Internal medicine residency graduates' perceptions of the systems-based practice and practice-based learning and improvement competencies.

BACKGROUND: Resident education in Systems-Based Practice (SBP) and Practice-Based Learning and Improvement (PBLI) is required but underemphasized. PURPOSES: The objectives are to identify SBP and PBLI knowledge and skills with the most relevance to our graduates' practices and to determine how well they were prepared during residency training to address these issues. METHODS: A survey was drafted based on Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competency definitions and published literature on SBP and PBLI. Respondents indicated the extent to which each item is relevant to their practice and the adequacy of instruction received on a 5-point Likert scale. RESULTS: All topics had high perceived relevance to practice with most topics rated low for adequacy of training. Topics of practice management and health care economics contained the largest gaps between mean ratings of relevance and adequacy of training (p < .001). Few differences in ratings were seen based on graduate demographics. CONCLUSIONS: This survey has allowed us to prioritize SBP and PBLI curricula to meet the needs of our graduates.

Health Equity in Graduate Medical Education: Exploring Internal Medicine Residents' Perspectives on a Social Determinants of Health Curriculum.

BACKGROUND: There is a clear mandate for resident training in social determinants of health (SDOH) and health equity stemming from patients' needs and program accreditation requirements. OBJECTIVE: To explore residents' perspectives on the impact of an SDOH curriculum. METHODS: In 2017, we developed an SDOH curriculum for 38 PGY-2 Internal medicine residents at our institution. Half of the residents completed semi-structured interviews and online reflections. We conducted a thematic analysis of the transcripts to identify common themes in their perspectives on the curriculum and its impact. RESULTS: Residents valued the curriculum and were motivated to change their practice. Participants cited lack of time and resources as important barriers limiting advocacy to the patient level. CONCLUSIONS: Graduate medical education training in SDOH is critical. By addressing the learner-defined barriers to advocacy and incorporating curricular elements learners have identified, residency programs can structure their SDOH curriculum to optimize the impact for patients and trainees.

Developing Equity Report Cards for Residents Training in Primary Care.

BACKGROUND: Most residency programs do not provide trainees with health equity data for their clinic patients. METHODS: Equity report cards were developed for internal and family medicine residents in a large health system. After considering which equity indictors were available, how to attribute patients to residents, and what level of granularity was feasible, equity reports were created for five ambulatory quality measures. Chi-square tests were used to test the significance of differences in quality measure satisfaction between groups. RESULTS: Attributing patients to the physician who had seen them for the greatest proportion of encounters performed best. Creating equity reports for individual resident panels was not possible due to insufficient numbers. Most measures had sufficient patients when combining all residents' patients. Inequities were identified for four of five examined measures. CONCLUSION: Creating aggregate equity reports for all primary care residents across multiple equity indicators was feasible, documenting disparities in health care quality.

The STRIVE Initiative: A Resident-Led Mentorship Framework for Underrepresented Minority Medical Students.

BACKGROUND: Underrepresented minority (URM) trainees face unique challenges in academic medicine. Near-peer mentorship is an under-described method to support URM trainees. OBJECTIVE: We created and evaluated the Student to Resident Institutional Vehicle for Excellence (STRIVE) program in a large urban medical school and associated residency programs. METHODS: All URM residents were invited to participate in the STRIVE mentorship program consisting of 3 pillars of programming: medical school curriculum review sessions, panel discussions, and social events for medical students. The program was evaluated through participation rates and a 7-item survey delivered in May 2019 after 3 years of implementation. RESULTS: The STRIVE initiative conducted 25 events. Thirty-five of 151 eligible (23%) URM residents participated as mentors for an average of 50 of 110 eligible (45%) URM medical students annually. Resident mentors participated for an average of 3 to 4 hours each year. Twenty of 32 eligible resident mentors (63%) completed the survey. Ninety-five percent (19 of 20) of survey respondents agreed that STRIVE made them a better mentor; 90% (18 of 20) reported that they would have appreciated an equivalent program during their medical school training; and 75% (15 of 20) agreed that the program helped them address the challenges of underrepresentation in medicine. CONCLUSIONS: Over a 3-year period, STRIVE required a modest amount of resident time and was valued by the URM residents and medical students who participated in the program.

Preliminary Efficacy of a Brief Mindfulness Intervention for Procedural Stress in Medical Intern Simulated Performance: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial.

Objectives: Simulation-based mastery learning (SBML) programs have been shown to be beneficial to improve procedural skill acquisition. However, simulated procedure performance can be affected by a host of factors, including stress. This investigation examined the preliminary efficacy of bolstering an established SBML program for medical residents with a brief mindfulness intervention (called a PITSTOP) to reduce procedural stress and improve simulator performance. Design: The study employed a partially blinded, parallel-group, randomized, repeated-measures intention-to-treat design. Participants were blinded to the primary outcome (simulator performance) and instead were informed of the study's secondary outcome (stress prevention). The SBML faculty instructors and study investigators were blinded to participants' group assignment. Settings/location: Northwestern Memorial Hospitals of Chicago. Subjects: Twenty-six postgraduate year (PGY) 1 internal medicine residents enrolled in a required SBML central venous catheter (CVC) insertion training from June 2015 to January 2018 participated in the study. Interventions: SBML consists of a simulated skills pretest, deliberate practice, and a simulated skills post-test (within 1 week of pretest). PGY 1 participants were randomly assigned to the PITSTOP intervention (12-min PITSTOP mindfulness training video) or control group (12-min control video on ways to increase physical activity) before the SBML pretest. Outcome measures: The primary outcome was a comparison of each group's simulator performance during pre- and post-tests. Secondary outcomes were changes in groups' procedural stress during these tests (assessed using self-reported, instructor-rated, and physiologic indicators), and self-reported self-regulation outcomes. Results: Residents who watched the PITSTOP video before their SBML training made fewer procedural errors relative to controls during their pretest for intrajugular CVC insertion (p = 0.03). PITSTOP participants also had lower heart rate (p = 0.03) and less visible trembling (p = 0.003) relative to controls at the post-test. Conclusions: This study provides preliminary evidence that a brief, mindfulness intervention may reduce stress during SBML training.

Social Determinants of Health Training in U.S. Primary Care Residency Programs: A Scoping Review.

PURPOSE: Medical training has traditionally focused on the proximate determinants of disease, with little focus on how social conditions influence health. The authors conducted a scoping review of existing curricula to understand the current programs designed to teach primary care residents about the social determinants of health (SDH). METHOD: In January and March 2017, the authors searched seven databases. Eligible articles focused on primary care residents, described a curriculum related to SDH, were published between January 2007 and January 2017, and were based in the United States. RESULTS: Of the initial 5,523 articles identified, 43 met study eligibility criteria. Most programs (29; 67%) were in internal medicine. Sixteen studies (37%) described the curriculum development process. Overall, 20 programs (47%) were short or one-time sessions, and 15 (35%) were longitudinal programs lasting at least 6 months. Thirty-two programs (74%) reported teaching SDH content using didactics, 22 (51%) incorporated experiential learning, and many programs (n = 38; 88%) employed both. Most studies reported satisfaction and/or self-perceived changes in knowledge or attitudes. CONCLUSIONS: The authors identified wide variation in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation. They highlight curricula that considered community and resident needs, used conceptual frameworks or engaged multiple stakeholders to select content, used multiple delivery methods, and focused evaluation on changes in skills or behaviors. This review highlights the need not only for systematic, standardized approaches to developing and delivering SDH curricula but also for developing rigorous evaluation of the curricula, particularly effects on resident behavior.

Immediate and long-term effects of a team-based quality improvement training programme.

BACKGROUND: Although many studies of quality improvement (QI) education programmes report improvement in learners' knowledge and confidence, the impact on learners' future engagement in QI activities is largely unknown and few studies report project measures beyond completion of the programme. METHOD: We developed the Academy for Quality and Safety Improvement (AQSI) to prepare individuals, across multiple departments and professions, to lead QI. The 7-month programme consisted of class work and team-based project work. We assessed participants' knowledge using a multiple choice test and an adapted Quality Improvement Knowledge Assessment Test (QIKAT) before and after the programme. We evaluated participants' postprogramme QI activity and project status using surveys at 6 and 18 months. RESULTS: Over 5 years, 172 individuals and 32 teams participated. Participants had higher multiple choice test (71.9±12.7 vs 79.4±13.2; p<0.001) and adapted QIKAT scores (55.7±16.3 vs 61.8±14.7; p<0.001) after the programme. The majority of participants at 6 months indicated that they had applied knowledge and skills learnt to improve quality in their clinical area (129/148; 87.2%) and to implement QI interventions (92/148; 62.2%). At 18 months, nearly half (48/101; 47.5%) had led other QI projects and many (41/101; 40.6%) had provided QI mentorship to others. Overall, 14 (43.8%) teams had positive postintervention results at AQSI completion and 20 (62.5%) had positive results at some point (ie, completion, 6 months or 18 months after AQSI). CONCLUSIONS: A team-based QI training programme resulted in a high degree of participants' involvement in QI activities beyond completion of the programme. A majority of team projects showed improvement in project measures, often occurring after completion of the programme.

Simulation-based education improves quality of care during cardiac arrest team responses at an academic teaching hospital: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Simulation technology is widely used in medical education. Linking educational outcomes achieved in a controlled environment to patient care improvement is a constant challenge. METHODS: This was a retrospective case-control study of cardiac arrest team responses from January to June 2004 at a university-affiliated internal medicine residency program. Medical records of advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) events were reviewed to assess adherence to ACLS response quality indicators based on American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines. All residents received traditional ACLS education. Second-year residents (simulator-trained group) also attended an educational program featuring the deliberate practice of ACLS scenarios using a human patient simulator. Third-year residents (traditionally trained group) were not trained on the simulator. During the study period, both simulator-trained and traditionally trained residents responded to ACLS events. We evaluated the effects of simulation training on the quality of the ACLS care provided. RESULTS: Simulator-trained residents showed significantly higher adherence to AHA standards (mean correct responses, 68%; SD, 20%) vs traditionally trained residents (mean correct responses, 44%; SD, 20%; p = 0.001). The odds ratio for an adherent ACLS response was 7.1 (95% confidence interval, 1.8 to 28.6) for simulator-trained residents compared to traditionally trained residents after controlling for patient age, ventilator, and telemetry status. CONCLUSIONS: A simulation-based educational program significantly improved the quality of care provided by residents during actual ACLS events. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that simulation can be a useful adjunct to traditional methods of procedural training.

Effect of Trainee Performance Data on Standard-Setting Judgments Using the Mastery Angoff Method.

BACKGROUND: Mastery learning in health professions education requires learners to learn and undergo assessment until they demonstrate a high level of competence. Setting defensible standards is key to accurately assessing educational outcomes in mastery learning. The Mastery Angoff method was proposed recently to set a minimum passing standard (MPS) for mastery learning curricula. However, it is unknown whether prior knowledge of trainee performance affects judges' decisions about setting an MPS using the Mastery Angoff method. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the effect of introducing baseline data about trainee performance on faculty judges' decisions about the Mastery Angoff MPS for a written examination. METHODS: We developed a mastery learning curriculum to train internal medicine residents and cardiology fellows about the correct interpretation of inpatient telemetry monitoring. All learners were required to meet or exceed an MPS on a 35-item written examination at the end of training. The MPS was set in 2017 by judges who used the item-based Mastery Angoff method without prior examinee performance information. The judges subsequently reevaluated the test items after receiving baseline data about trainee performance collected during pilot testing. Mastery Angoff MPSs with and without baseline performance data were compared. RESULTS: Twelve judges participated in the standard-setting exercise. The initial MPS was similar to the repeat MPS set after judges received trainee performance data (86.2% versus 86.9%, P = .23). CONCLUSIONS: Prior knowledge about medical trainee performance data did not affect MPS as determined by the Mastery Angoff procedure.