Development, explanation, and presentation of the Physical Literacy Interventions Reporting Template (PLIRT).

BACKGROUND: The physical literacy (PL) concept integrates different personal (e.g., physical, cognitive, psychological/affective, social) determinants of physical activity and has received growing attention recently. Although practical efforts increasingly adopt PL as a guiding concept, latest evidence has shown that PL interventions often lack specification of important theoretical foundations and basic delivery information. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to develop an expert-based template that supports researchers and practitioners in planning and reporting PL interventions. METHODS: The development process was informed by Moher et al.'s guidance for the development of research reporting guidelines. We composed a group of ten distinguished experts on PL. In two face-to-face meetings, the group first discussed a literature-driven draft of reporting items. In the second stage, the experts anonymously voted and commented on the items in two rounds (each leading to revisions) until consensus was reached. RESULTS: The panel recommended that stakeholders of PL initiatives should tightly interlock interventional aspects with PL theory while ensuring consistency throughout all stages of intervention development. The Physical Literacy Interventions Reporting Template (PLIRT) encompasses a total of 14 items (two additional items for mixed-methods studies) in six different sections: title (one item), background and definition (three items), assessment (one item each for quantitative and qualitative studies), design and content (five items), evaluation (one item plus one item each for quantitative and qualitative studies), discussion and conclusion (two items). CONCLUSION: The PLIRT was designed to facilitate improved transparency and interpretability in reports on PL interventions. The template has the potential to close gaps between theory and practice, thereby contributing to more holistic interventions for the fields of physical education, sport, and health.

Playground activities and gender variation in objectively measured physical activity intensity in Australian primary school children: a repeated measures study.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have sought to address the limited time for physical activity by focusing on increasing physical activity intensity among students during non-curricula periods and specifically school break times. We objectively measured the intensity of student physical activity (PA) during recess and lunch breaks at primary schools in the Western Sydney region of New South Wales (NSW), Australia using a 12-month repeated measures observation design study. METHODS: Systematic direct observation of recess and lunch breaks over a ten-week period in 2014 and 2015. 120 recess and lunch breaks across twenty schools (2014) with 839 periodic observations and across 15 schools with 587 periodic observations in 2015. Both observation periods were conducted over 10-weeks in Term 4 (September - December). RESULTS: The mean proportion of vigorous physical activity reported as a percentage (%VPA) across both time points was 16.6% (SD = 23.4). 36.8% (SD = 26.0) of time was spent walking and the remaining time (46.6%; SD = 30.4) was spent in sedentary activities. There was a significant decline in %VPA and increase in sedentary activity (p < 0.01) between the two time periods of measurement. In 2014, boys spent twice as much time in %VPA than girls during breaks in the school day and in 2015 this increased to nearly three times as much time in %VPA. %VPA also varied on the type of surface PA took place and the types of activities the children were allowed to undertake during breaks. CONCLUSIONS: Recess and lunch breaks potentially offer an opportunity for children to participate in unstructured PA during the school day. Substantial variations in the %VPA during these periods exist. Addressing playground gender participation disparities and space usability/accessibility may be a necessary first step in promoting higher PA intensities during breaks.

An objective and cross-sectional examination of sun-safe behaviours in New South Wales primary schools.

BACKGROUND: Previous evaluations have supported the link between sun protection policies and improved sun protection behaviours. However these evaluations have relied on self-reported data. METHODS: A cross-sectional design as part of an ongoing 18-month cluster-controlled trial in primary schools (n = 20) was used. Researchers conducted direct observations to record students' hat use and teachers' use of sun protective measures during recess and lunch. Researchers also recorded the volume of sunscreen consumed in each school. RESULTS: Only 60% of primary school children wear a sun-safe hat during their breaks when observed using objective measures. Weak correlations were observed between the wearing of a sun-safe hat and a school's socio-economic status (r = 0.26). All other independent variables measured had only very weak correlations (r < 0.19) with sun-safe hat wearing behaviour of students. Sunscreen consumption by school students during the school day is negligible. CONCLUSIONS: A large percentage of NSW primary schools in this study wear sun-safe hats during the school day but this is well below what has been reported in previous national surveys. Given the finite resources of schools and the correlation, though small, with SES status for these behaviours, it behoves researchers to investigate low-cost solutions to these problems. Further qualitative data will also be needed to inform the enablers and barriers for sun-safe behaviour interventions to be adopted in NSW primary schools.

Teaching approaches and strategies that promote healthy eating in primary school children: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Healthy eating by primary school-aged children is important for good health and development. Schools can play an important role in the education and promotion of healthy eating among children. The aim of this review was to: 1) perform a systematic review of randomised controlled, quasi-experimental and cluster controlled trials examining the school-based teaching interventions that improve the eating habits of primary school children; and 2) perform a meta-analysis to determine the effect of those interventions. METHODS: The systematic review was limited to four healthy eating outcomes: reduced food consumption or energy intake; increased fruit and vegetable consumption or preference; reduced sugar consumption or preference (not from whole fruit); increased nutritional knowledge. In March 2014, we searched seven electronic databases using predefined keywords for intervention studies that were conducted in primary schools which focused on the four healthy eating outcomes. Targeted internet searching using Google Scholar was also used. In excess of 200,000 possible citations were identified. Abstracts and full text of articles of potentially relevant papers were screened to determine eligibility. Data pertaining to teaching strategies that reported on healthy eating outcomes for primary school children was extracted from the 49 eligible papers. RESULTS: Experiential learning strategies were associated with the largest effects across the reduced food consumption or energy intake; increased fruit and vegetable consumption or preference; and increased nutritional knowledge outcomes. Reducing sugar consumption and preference was most influenced by cross-curricular approaches embedded in the interventions. CONCLUSIONS: As with most educational interventions, most of the teaching strategies extracted from the intervention studies led to positive changes in primary school children's healthy eating behaviours. However, given the finite resources, increased overcrowding of school curriculum and capacity of teachers in primary schools, a meta-analysis of this scope is able to provide stakeholders with the best evidence of where these resources should be focused.

Rationale and study protocol to evaluate the SunSmart policy intervention: a cluster randomised controlled trial of a primary school-based health promotion program.

BACKGROUND: Previous evaluations of the SunSmart Program have supported the link between a written sun protection policy and improved sun protection behaviours in New South Wales (NSW) primary schools. However these evaluations have relied on self-reported data and research suggests that direct observations are required to better represent schools' usual sun protective practices. METHODS/DESIGN: Data will be collected in the summer months of 2014, 2015, and 2016 as part of an 18-month cluster-controlled trial in NSW primary schools (n = 20). Researchers will conduct three direct observations to record students' hat use and teachers' use of sun protective measures during recess and lunch periods in each school. Researchers will also record the volume of sunscreen that the Year 6 classes in each school utilise over the term. At the conclusion of baseline data collection, five schools will be randomised into an intervention group that will work with researchers to develop a policy-driven intervention to improve sun safety behaviour in NSW primary schools. DISCUSSION: An initial review of relevant Australian and New Zealand literature suggests that provision of policy support is likely to improve school sun protection practices; however there is no suggested model for this support. This will be the first objective analysis of sun safe behaviours leading to a policy-driven intervention conducted in Australian primary schools since the 1990s, and will inform the future direction of sun safety in our schools. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register ACTRN12614000926639 Registered 28(th) August 2014.

Development of a Global Physical Literacy (GloPL) Action Framework: Study protocol for a consensus process.

BACKGROUND: The holistic concept of physical literacy (PL) has gained growing attention in recent research, policy, and practice. Many important policy documents of the physical activity and educational fields (e.g., Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018-2030 by the World Health Organization, UNESCO's Quality Physical Education guidelines for policymakers) have specified PL. However, a clear framework for action is needed, as most initiatives across the world are fragmented, lack a prospective orientation, can benefit from conceptual clarification, and are not linked to effective translation into practice. Therefore, we aim to consensually develop a Global Physical Literacy (GloPL) Action Framework to define goals and principles (asking what is needed) as well as actions and ways (asking how these can be achieved) to move PL forward. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We apply a three-stage group Delphi technique involving three representation groups: (a) geographical representatives to achieve global coverage of perspectives; (b) representatives of special thematic interest reflecting prominent gaps of current PL activities; and (c) representatives of societies from the broad field of physical activity and health to facilitate dissemination. The process will begin with an individual pre-Delphi exercise, in which experts generate initial ideas for the framework, followed by a four-eye document analysis to derive themes for the discussion. Subsequently, the experts will meet face-to-face in three online rounds to discuss and prioritize the themes. Interspersed formal voting with pre-defined agreement thresholds (via descriptive statistics) will inform the inclusion of themes within the final framework. CONCLUSIONS: A global consensus on goals, principles, actions, and ways for the development of PL has the potential to provide a largely accepted roadmap for future activities in research, policy, and practice. The co-production approach will help disseminate the GloPL Action Framework and benefit work in relevant application fields of physical activity and health worldwide.

Does incorporating high intensity interval training in physical education classes improve fitness outcomes of students? A cluster randomized controlled trial.

The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a high intensity interval training (HIIT) intervention lasting 12 weeks on fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, speed, flexibility, and balance) and adiposity of 10- to 15-year-old students implemented during their physical education (PE). The focus of this study was to compare two approaches to increasing fitness level among school-aged children, one approach focusing on regular PE sessions in accordance with the curriculum and another one on regular PE classes augmented by HIIT. A cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted (February-May 2022, Zagreb, Croatia). The total number of students across both groups was 207. General linear models were used to compare fitness and adiposity changes in both groups based on Eurofit test battery. A significant effect of the HIIT intervention was present for the 20-meter shuttle run test (p = 0.001; d = 0.31). The effect of the intervention compared to the control was estimated as an additional 181.2 m, 95 %CI (70.4 to 292.0). An additional intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis showed that the effect of the HIIT intervention on 20-meter shuttle run test remained statistically significant (p = 0.011), though the magnitude of the estimated effect was reduced from 181.2 m; SE = 55.4 to 119.6 m; SE = 46.4. Whilst it appears HIIT had the opposite of the expected effect on body fat percentiles, the effect on body composition was inconsistent. The intervention is registered at the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) [ACTRN12622000209796].

Changes in physical activity levels, lesson context, and teacher interaction during physical education in culturally and linguistically diverse Australian schools.

BACKGROUND: Recent data show that only 15% of Australian adolescents participate in adequate amounts of physical activity (PA) and those students from Asian and Middle-Eastern backgrounds in Grades 6-12 are significantly less active than their English-speaking background peers. Schools have recently been recognised as the most widely used and cost-effective setting for promoting PA among youth and one domain within schools where PA can occur regularly for all youth, regardless of cultural background or socio-economic status, is during physical education (PE). METHODS: This study describes changes in physical activity (PA), lesson context and teacher interaction in physical education over the first two years in culturally and linguistically diverse secondary schools. Grade 7 PE classes in six schools were randomly observed using systematic direct observation (n = 81) and then followed up over the same period (n = 51) twelve months later. RESULTS: There was no significant decline in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during PE (MD = -4.8%; p = .777), but a significant decline and medium negative effect in time spent in vigorous physical activity (VPA) (MD = -7.9%; p = .009) during PE was observed. Significant declines and large negative effects over time in percentage of PE time spent in management (MD = -8.8%; p < .001) and the number of observations where teachers promoted PA (MD = -20.7%; p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The decline of VPA and teacher promotion of PA in culturally and linguistically diverse schools is of concern. Given the declines in VPA and the increases in time spent in game play, further research is needed to ascertain whether PE instruction could be improved by focussing on skill instruction and fitness in a games-based PE instruction model. Further research for increasing teacher promotion of PA during PE is needed.

Physical literacy profiles are associated with differences in children's physical activity participation: A latent profile analysis approach.

OBJECTIVES: Despite physical literacy receiving increased attention as a potential gateway to physical activity participation, research establishing the link between physical literacy as a higher-order latent construct and physical activity is scant. The purpose of this study was to identify physical literacy profiles of children, and in turn, whether these profiles were associated with differences in physical activity participation. METHODS: Design: Prospective cohort study. Children (N = 2015; 49% girls) completed a battery of measures to assess physical literacy (i.e., motor competence, confidence, motivation and enjoyment) in 5th grade. Physical activity participation was reported in the 5th and 8th grades. Latent profile analysis was applied to identify physical literacy profiles and estimate the effects of profile membership on physical activity participation. RESULTS: Five unique profiles emerged including high (61.8%), moderate (19.8%) and low physical literacy (6.7%) as well as two inconsistent low physical literacy profiles characterized by divergent high enjoyment (9.7%) and very low enjoyment (2%). After adjusting for socioeconomic status and gender, physical activity participation was greatest among the high physical literacy profile, followed by the moderate physical literacy profile and was lowest across the three low physical literacy profiles. Differences in physical activity participation observed across the profiles remained consistent over time. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time a person-centered approach has been applied to understand how the domains of physical literacy interact with each other to influence physical activity patterns. Results suggest physical literacy plays a formative role in shaping physical activity trajectories from a young age.

Art Meets Sport: What Can Actor Training Bring to Physical Literacy Programs?

The aim of this communication is to highlight synergies and opportunities between the fields of education, sport and health and the performing arts for the promotion of physical literacy. First, physical literacy is introduced and then defined according to the definition used in this communication. Secondly, we highlight the gap in physical literacy interventions, in that they do not address learning based on a holistic comprehensive definition of physical literacy. Then we provide examples of interventions that do borrow from the arts, such as circus arts, and show how these approaches explicitly link to the discipline of arts. This is followed by program examples, which approach motor and language development from discipline-specific perspectives. Then we introduce actor training (within the discipline of arts) in terms of how this approach may be useful to our understanding of physical literacy and how to expand the conception of physical literacy to include affective meaning making, and tolerance for ambiguity and discomfort in not-knowing. Finally, we conclude with the next step for the bridging of disciplines in order to further our journey to understand and improve physical literacy.

The Preschool Physical Literacy Assessment Tool: Testing a New Physical Literacy Tool for the Early Years.

Background: Physical literacy is essential to physical activity across the lifespan. While there is an emerging body of research on physical literacy in school-aged children, the preschool years have largely been ignored. We tested the psychometric properties of the new tool, the Preschool Physical Literacy Assessment Tool (Pre-PLAy) designed to address this gap. Methods: We recruted 78 children (aged 19-49 months) across 5 childcare centers in Hamilton, Ontario. Two Early Childhood Educators (ECE) completed the Pre-PLAy for each child at two points in time to assess inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability. We assessed the agreement between the Pre-PLAy tool with gross motor skills and the ability of the PPLAy to predict physical activity. Results: Results indicated Pre-PLAy is related to gross motor skills and predictive of physical activity for females, but not males. Inter-rater and intra-rater reliability was at least adequate for all but the coordinated movements items and scale for females, but ECEs showed poor agreement for males. Conclusions: These results suggest initial support for the Pre-PLAy tool as a measure of physical literacy during the early years. However, some modification to the items and training are required to address the gender-specific effects found in this sample.

Teaching Healthy Eating to Elementary School Students: A Scoping Review of Nutrition Education Resources.

BACKGROUND: School-based programs represent an ideal setting to enhance healthy eating, as most children attend school regularly and consume at least one meal and a number of snacks at school each day. However, current research reports that elementary school teachers often display low levels of nutritional knowledge, self-efficacy, and skills to effectively deliver nutrition education. METHODS: The purpose of this review was to understand the availability and quality of resources that are accessible for elementary school teachers to use to support curriculum delivery or nutrition education programs. The review included 32 resources from 4 countries in the final analysis from 1989 to 2014. RESULTS: The 32 resources exhibited 8 dominant teaching strategies: curriculum approaches; cross-curricular approaches; parental involvement; experiential learning approaches; contingent reinforcement approaches; literary abstraction approaches; games-based approaches; and web-based approaches. The resources were accessible to elementary school teachers, with all the resources embedding curriculum approaches, and most of the resources embedding parental involvement strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Resources were less likely to embed cross-curricular and experiential learning approaches, as well as contingent reinforcement approaches, despite recent research suggesting that the most effective evidence-based strategies for improving healthy eating in elementary school children are cross-curricular and experiential learning approaches.

Physical activity levels and movement skill instruction in secondary school physical education.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the levels of physical activity (PA), lesson context and teacher interaction students receive during physical education (PE) in secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia. DESIGN: Baseline cross-sectional study. METHODS: Systematic direct observation of Year 7 PE classes over a six-month period. Eighty one (81) PE lessons across six schools were observed. RESULTS: The mean (SD) percentage of class time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was 56.9% (18.7). However, only 60% of the 81 met the recommended 50% of class time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Just over 6% of class time was spent in skill instruction. Game play made up nearly half of the lesson context (44%) and teachers spent just under one-third (31%) of class time promoting PA. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial variations in the PA, lesson context and teacher interaction exist within PE. As a large proportion of classes, especially girls' only classes, did not meet the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommendation of 50% of class time in MVPA, ways need to be found to promote PA in PE classes. Levels of skill instruction and practice were well below international comparisons and may have implications for PA participation later in life. Numerous possibilities exist for improving PE in Australia as a way of improving the activity levels and experiences of our young people.

Engaging adolescent girls from linguistically diverse and low income backgrounds in school sport: a pilot randomised controlled trial.

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a school-based physical activity program delivered during school sport time among adolescent girls from low income predominately linguistically diverse backgrounds in New South Wales, Australia. Using a 3-month, 2-arm, parallel-group pilot RCT design, 38 adolescent girls (Year 11) were recruited to participate in the program and randomised into intervention (n=17) or control groups (n=21). The intervention program aimed to increase physical activity by improving enjoyment, physical self-perception and perceived competence. Baseline and follow-up (12 weeks) assessments included enjoyment of physical activity, physical self-perception, and objectively measured physical activity during school sport sessions. Process data were collected through observations of lessons, attendance records, and interviews with participants and staff. Recruitment (63%) and retention (68%) goals were less than anticipated but similar to other studies. Participation was higher for the intervention (72%) than the control (60%) group and the intervention group reported high levels of satisfaction with the program. At follow-up, girls in the intervention group, compared with the control group, showed greater improvement in their enjoyment of physical activity during school sport (adjusted mean difference=3.8, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] -2.4, 10.1; Cohen's d=0.42 standard deviation units) and body image (adjusted difference mean=1.0, 95% CI -0.4, 2.3; d=0.50). There was a smaller decline in participation in physical activity during school sport (adjusted mean=13.6, 95% CI -21.8, 48.9; d=0.24). This study highlights major barriers confronting adolescent girls' participation in school sport. Some of these include teacher attitudes and support, activities and programming, purpose and distinction, and student input. Negotiating these barriers and overcoming them in a school setting appears feasible with support from the entire school community.