Acyl-Ghrelin Attenuates Neurochemical and Motor Deficits in the 6-OHDA Model of Parkinson's Disease.

The feeding-related hormone, acyl-ghrelin, protects dopamine neurones in murine 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-based models of experimental Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the potential protective effect of acyl-ghrelin on substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) dopaminergic neurones and consequent behavioural correlates in the more widely used 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat medial forebrain bundle (MFB) lesion model of PD are unknown. To address this question, acyl-ghrelin levels were raised directly by mini-pump infusion for 7 days prior to unilateral injection of 6-OHDA into the MFB with assessment of amphetamine-induced rotations on days 27 and 35, and immunohistochemical analysis of dopaminergic neurone survival. Whilst acyl-ghrelin treatment was insufficient to elevate food intake or body weight, it attenuated amphetamine-induced circling behaviour and SNpc dopamine neurone loss induced by 6-OHDA. These data support the notion that elevating circulating acyl-ghrelin may be a valuable approach to slow or impair progression of neurone loss in PD.

Outcome of cell suspension allografts in a patient with Huntington's disease.

For patients with incurable neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's (HD) and Parkinson's disease, cell transplantation has been explored as a potential treatment option. Here, we present the first clinicopathological study of a patient with HD in receipt of cell-suspension striatal allografts who took part in the NEST-UK multicenter clinical transplantation trial. Using various immunohistochemical techniques, we found a discrepancy in the survival of grafted projection neurons with respect to grafted interneurons as well as major ongoing inflammatory and immune responses to the grafted tissue with evidence of mutant huntingtin aggregates within the transplant area. Our results indicate that grafts can survive more than a decade post-transplantation, but show compromised survival with inflammation and mutant protein being observed within the transplant site. Ann Neurol 2018;84:950-956.

Activin A directs striatal projection neuron differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells.

The efficient generation of striatal neurons from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) is fundamental for realising their promise in disease modelling, pharmaceutical drug screening and cell therapy for Huntington's disease. GABAergic medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) are the principal projection neurons of the striatum and specifically degenerate in the early phase of Huntington's disease. Here we report that activin A induces lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE) characteristics in nascent neural progenitors derived from hESCs and hiPSCs in a sonic hedgehog-independent manner. Correct specification of striatal phenotype was further demonstrated by the induction of the striatal transcription factors CTIP2, GSX2 and FOXP2. Crucially, these human LGE progenitors readily differentiate into postmitotic neurons expressing the striatal projection neuron signature marker DARPP32, both in culture and following transplantation in the adult striatum in a rat model of Huntington's disease. Activin-induced neurons also exhibit appropriate striatal-like electrophysiology in vitro. Together, our findings demonstrate a novel route for efficient differentiation of GABAergic striatal MSNs from human pluripotent stem cells.

Influence of chronic L-DOPA treatment on immune response following allogeneic and xenogeneic graft in a rat model of Parkinson's disease.

Although intrastriatal transplantation of fetal cells for the treatment of Parkinson's disease had shown encouraging results in initial open-label clinical trials, subsequent double-blind studies reported more debatable outcomes. These studies highlighted the need for greater preclinical analysis of the parameters that may influence the success of cell therapy. While much of this has focused on the cells and location of the transplants, few have attempted to replicate potentially critical patient centered factors. Of particular relevance is that patients will be under continued L-DOPA treatment prior to and following transplantation, and that typically the grafts will not be immunologically compatible with the host. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the effect of chronic L-DOPA administered during different phases of the transplantation process on the survival and function of grafts with differing degrees of immunological compatibility. To that end, unilaterally 6-OHDA lesioned rats received sham surgery, allogeneic or xenogeneic transplants, while being treated with L-DOPA before and/or after transplantation. Irrespective of the L-DOPA treatment, dopaminergic grafts improved function and reduced the onset of L-DOPA induced dyskinesia. Importantly, although L-DOPA administered post transplantation was found to have no detrimental effect on graft survival, it did significantly promote the immune response around xenogeneic transplants, despite the administration of immunosuppressive treatment (cyclosporine). This study is the first to systematically examine the effect of L-DOPA on graft tolerance, which is dependent on the donor-host compatibility. These findings emphasize the importance of using animal models that adequately represent the patient paradigm.

Developmentally coordinated extrinsic signals drive human pluripotent stem cell differentiation toward authentic DARPP-32+ medium-sized spiny neurons.

Medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) are the only neostriatum projection neurons, and their degeneration underlies some of the clinical features of Huntington's disease. Using knowledge of human developmental biology and exposure to key neurodevelopmental molecules, human pluripotent stem (hPS) cells were induced to differentiate into MSNs. In a feeder-free adherent culture, ventral telencephalic specification is induced by BMP/TGFß inhibition and subsequent SHH/DKK1 treatment. The emerging FOXG1(+)/GSX2(+) telencephalic progenitors are then terminally differentiated, resulting in the systematic line-independent generation of FOXP1(+)/FOXP2(+)/CTIP2(+)/calbindin(+)/DARPP-32(+) MSNs. Similar to mature MSNs, these neurons carry dopamine and A2a receptors, elicit a typical firing pattern and show inhibitory postsynaptic currents, as well as dopamine neuromodulation and synaptic integration ability in vivo. When transplanted into the striatum of quinolinic acid-lesioned rats, hPS-derived neurons survive and differentiate into DARPP-32(+) neurons, leading to a restoration of apomorphine-induced rotation behavior. In summary, hPS cells can be efficiently driven to acquire a functional striatal fate using an ontogeny-recapitulating stepwise method that represents a platform for in vitro human developmental neurobiology studies and drug screening approaches.

Intraspinal stem cell transplantation for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Ready for efficacy clinical trials?

Intraspinal stem cell (SC) transplantation represents a new therapeutic approach for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) clinical trials. There are considerable difficulties in designing future efficacy trials, some related to the field of ALS and some that are specific to SCs or the mode of delivery. In October 2015, the most controversial points on SC transplantation were addressed during an international workshop intended to bring together international SC and ALS researchers in a public discussion on a topic for which expertise is limited. During the meeting, a discussion was started on the basic structure of the ideal clinical trial testing the efficacy and safety of SC transplantation. The current document includes a number of consensus points reflecting the design of phase II/III clinical trials.

Similar striatal gene expression profiles in the striatum of the YAC128 and HdhQ150 mouse models of Huntington's disease are not reflected in mutant Huntingtin inclusion prevalence.

BACKGROUND: The YAC128 model of Huntington's disease (HD) shows substantial deficits in motor, learning and memory tasks and alterations in its transcriptional profile. We examined the changes in the transcriptional profile in the YAC128 mouse model of HD at 6, 12 and 18 months and compared these with those seen in other models and human HD caudate. RESULTS: Differential gene expression by genotype showed that genes related to neuronal function, projection outgrowth and cell adhesion were altered in expression. A Time-course ANOVA revealed that genes downregulated with increased age in wild-type striata were likely to be downregulated in the YAC128 striata. There was a substantial overlap of concordant gene expression changes in the YAC128 striata compared with those in human HD brain. Changes in gene expression over time showed fewer striatal YAC128 RNAs altered in abundance than in the HdhQ150 striata but there was a very marked overlap in transcriptional changes at all time points. Despite the similarities in striatal expression changes at 18 months the HdhQ150 mice showed widespread mHTT and ubiquitin positive inclusion staining in the striatum whereas this was absent in the YAC128 striatum. CONCLUSIONS: The gene expression changes in YAC128 striata show a very closely matched profile to that of HdhQ150 striata and are already significantly different between genotypes by six months of age, implying that the temporal molecular gene expression profiles of these models match very closely, despite differences in the prevalence of brain inclusion formation between the models. The YAC128 gene expression changes appear to correlate well with gene expression differences caused by ageing. A relatively small number of genes showed significant differences in expression between the striata of the two models and these could explain some of the phenotypic differences between the models.

Challenges for taking primary and stem cells into clinical neurotransplantation trials for neurodegenerative disease.

We review the first generations of clinical trials of novel cell therapies applied to a range of neurodegenerative diseases in the context of mechanisms of functional efficacy. This in turn helps to determine the best strategies to be adopted and the potential chances for success in developing new cell therapies to clinical application in different conditions. We then consider the scientific, technical, ethical, regulatory and logistic issues to be resolved in translating effective laboratory cell-based protocols to patients in clinical trials. We draw optimistic conclusions about the likelihood of success in developing radical new approaches to a range of devastating, and currently untreatable, neurodegenerative conditions, but caution that the problems are complex and the solutions are likely to be slow and costly to achieve in order to overcome significant ethical and regulatory as well as scientific challenges.

Tests to assess motor phenotype in mice: a user's guide.

The characterization of mouse models of human disease is essential for understanding the underlying pathophysiology and developing new therapeutics. Many diseases are often associated with more than one model, and so there is a need to determine which model most closely represents the disease state or is most suited to the therapeutic approach under investigation. In the case of neurological disease, motor tests provide a good read-out of neurological function. This overview of available motor tasks aims to aid researchers in making the correct choice of test when attempting to tease out a transgenic phenotype or when assessing the recovery of motor function following therapeutic intervention.

Comparison of rating scales used to evaluate L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the 6-OHDA lesioned rat.

Abnormal involuntary movement (AIM) rating scales are frequently used to study the mechanisms underlying L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) in 6-OHDA lesioned rodents and the propensity of novel treatments for Parkinson's disease to induce or alleviate similar abnormal behaviours. Despite the existence of at least one well validated method, other AIM scales are also in use. Moreover, there have been developments and variations in the original scales and their methods of use, without re-validation. In this study, 6-OHDA medial forebrain bundle lesioned Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with chronic L-DOPA 6 mg/kg/day for 5 weeks followed by 12 mg/kg/day for another 5 weeks. Rats were assessed weekly by simultaneous ratings on four published AIM and stereotypy scales with concurrent recording of rotation, over 3 hours following L-DOPA injection. Three contemporary AIM scales have then been validated pharmacologically using agents that are known to reduce LID clinically and in primates (amantadine) or to interfere with the activity of L-DOPA (the D(1) and D(2) dopamine receptor antagonists, SCH-23390 and raclopride) respectively. We also demonstrate that AIM, stereotypic and rotational behaviour are distinct motor dysfunctions induced by chronic and acute treatment of L-DOPA, and should be assessed separately. The undertaking of assessments at multiple time points is essential especially when testing the efficacy of new potential anti-dyskinetic treatments. Importantly critical to all AIM and rotation testing is the internal validation of both the scale being used and the environment being used.

Behavioural recovery on simple and complex tasks by means of cell replacement therapy in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned mice.

Before cell replacement therapies can enter the clinic, it is imperative to test the therapeutic benefits in well-described animal models. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions to the medial forebrain bundle and subsequent grafting of embryonic day (E)12.5 ventral mesencephalon into the denervated striatum in C57/Bl6 mice on a battery of simple motor tests (drug-induced rotation, rotarod, and corridor) and the lateralised choice reaction time task conducted in the mouse nine-hole box. Histological analysis confirmed effective lesions and good graft survival. The lesion induced marked deficits in the choice reaction time task, the rotarod test, and corridor test, and these deficits were partially but significantly alleviated in the grafted mice. Although the lesions induced significant rotation following injections of amphetamine and apomorphine, respectively, the grafts did not, suprisingly, alleviate the rotation deficit. This study shows the ability of ventral mesencephalic tissue to ameliorate some of the lesion-induced deficits, and the power of operant testing in detecting small but significant improvements. The behavioural tests presented are useful drug-free approaches for evaluating cell-based therapies.

Comparison of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the substantia nigra and the medial forebrain bundle on a lateralised choice reaction time task in mice.

Parkinson's disease is most commonly modelled via unilateral infusion of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in the rat, but recent work has been aimed to translate the reproducibility and reliability of the model to the mouse. Here we present the effects of unilateral 6-OHDA lesions to either the medial forebrain bundle or the substantia nigra (SN) in mice, which were trained on a lateralised choice reaction time (RT) task. This task measures response accuracy as well as RT and movement time latencies, and offers the opportunity for a more fine-grained analysis of the precise nature of the movement deficit, motor learning and functional recovery than can be achieved using classical tests of simple motor asymmetry. Both lesion types caused impaired response accuracy, which was more pronounced when responses had to be directed contralateral to the lesion. Furthermore, movement times were increased for both lesion groups, whereas only the bundle lesion group displayed a RT deficit. The lesions were stable over three consecutive weeks of testing, therefore lesion-type and behavioural assessment on the operant task are suitable to investigate the dopaminergic system in parkinsonian mice. Both lesions were stable over time, and were more pronounced when responses were directed in contralateral space; the mice with more complete bundle lesions displayed a greater deficit than mice that received lesions to the SN. The translation of this choice RT task will be beneficial for the assessment of therapeutics in mouse models of the disease.

The long-term safety and efficacy of bilateral transplantation of human fetal striatal tissue in patients with mild to moderate Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease involving progressive motor, cognitive and behavioural decline, leading to death approximately 20 years after motor onset. The disease is characterised pathologically by an early and progressive striatal neuronal cell loss and atrophy, which has provided the rationale for first clinical trials of neural repair using fetal striatal cell transplantation. Between 2000 and 2003, the 'NEST-UK' consortium carried out bilateral striatal transplants of human fetal striatal tissue in five HD patients. This paper describes the long-term follow up over a 3-10-year postoperative period of the patients, grafted and non-grafted, recruited to this cohort using the 'Core assessment program for intracerebral transplantations-HD' assessment protocol. No significant differences were found over time between the patients, grafted and non-grafted, on any subscore of the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale, nor on the Mini Mental State Examination. There was a trend towards a slowing of progression on some timed motor tasks in four of the five patients with transplants, but overall, the trial showed no significant benefit of striatal allografts in comparison with a reference cohort of patients without grafts. Importantly, no significant adverse or placebo effects were seen. Notably, the raclopride positron emission tomography (PET) signal in individuals with transplants, indicated that there was no obvious surviving striatal graft tissue. This study concludes that fetal striatal allografting in HD is safe. While no sustained functional benefit was seen, we conclude that this may relate to the small amount of tissue that was grafted in this safety study compared with other reports of more successful transplants in patients with HD.

Impaired cognitive and motor function are coincident with L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in a model of Parkinson's disease.

Dopamine transmission has been implicated in motor and cognitive function. In Parkinson's disease (PD), dopamine replacement using the precursor drug L-DOPA is the predominant treatment approach, but long-term exposure leads to the onset of dyskinesias (LIDs). Chronic L-DOPA exposure has been associated with changes in gene expression and altered cortico-striatal plasticity. The aim of this research was to assess the functional consequence of long-term L-DOPA exposure on cognitive and motor function using a rodent model of PD. Across two independent experiments, we assessed the impact of chronic L-DOPA exposure, or a control D2R agonist, on motor and cognitive function in intact and in hemi parkinsonian rats, in the absence of drug. Abnormal involuntary movements associated with LID were measured and brain tissues were subsequently harvested for immunohistochemical analysis. Exposure to chronic L-DOPA, but not the D2R agonist, impaired motor and cognitive function, when animals were tested in the absence of drug. A meta-analysis of the two experiments allowed further dissociation of L-DOPA -treated rats into those that developed LIDs (dyskinetic) and those that did not develop LIDs (non-dyskinetic). This analysis revealed impaired cognitive and motor performance were evident only in dyskinetic, but not in non-dyskinetic, rats. These data reveal a functional consequence of the altered plasticity associated with LID onset and have implications for understanding symptom progression in the clinic.

Cognitive dysfunction and depression in Parkinson's disease: what can be learned from rodent models?

Parkinson's disease (PD) has for decades been considered a pure motor disorder and its cardinal motor symptoms have been attributed to the loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and to nigral Lewy body pathology. However, there has more recently been a shift in the conceptualization of the disease, and its pathological features have now been recognized as involving several other areas of the brain and indeed even outside the central nervous system. There are a corresponding variety of intrinsic non-motor symptoms such as autonomic dysfunction, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances and neuropsychiatric problems, which cannot be explained exclusively by nigral pathology. In this review, we will focus on cognitive impairment and affective symptoms in PD, and we will consider whether, and how, these deficits can best be modelled in rodent models of the disorder. As only a few of the non-motor symptoms respond to standard DA replacement therapies, the quest for a broader therapeutic approach remains a major research effort, and success in this area in particular will be strongly dependent on appropriate rodent models. In addition, better understanding of the different models, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the available behavioural tasks, will result in better tools for evaluating new treatment strategies for PD patients suffering from these neuropsychological symptoms.

Neonatal desensitization allows long-term survival of neural xenotransplants without immunosuppression.

Preclinical development of human cells for potential therapeutic application in neurodegenerative diseases requires that their long-term survival, stability and functional efficacy be studied in animal models of human disease. Here we describe a strategy for long-term immune protection of human fetal and stem cell-derived neural cells transplanted into the adult rat brain, by desensitizing the host rat to similar cells in the neonatal period, without the need for additional immunosuppression.

Age-dependent maintenance of motor control and corticostriatal innervation by death receptor 3.

Death receptor 3 is a proinflammatory member of the immunomodulatory tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, which has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. Intriguingly however, constitutive DR3 expression has been detected in the brains of mice, rats, and humans, although its neurological function remains unknown. By mapping the normal brain expression pattern of DR3, we found that DR3 is expressed specifically by cells of the neuron lineage in a developmentally regulated and region-specific pattern. Behavioral studies on DR3-deficient (DR3(ko)) mice showed that constitutive neuronal DR3 expression was required for stable motor control function in the aging adult. DR3(ko) mice progressively developed behavioral defects characterized by altered gait, dyskinesia, and hyperactivity, which were associated with elevated dopamine and lower serotonin levels in the striatum. Importantly, retrograde tracing showed that absence of DR3 expression led to the loss of corticostriatal innervation without significant neuronal loss in aged DR3(ko) mice. These studies indicate that DR3 plays a key nonredundant role in the retention of normal motor control function during aging in mice and implicate DR3 in progressive neurological disease.

Proximal movements compensate for distal forelimb movement impairments in a reach-to-eat task in Huntington's disease: new insights into motor impairments in a real-world skill.

Huntington's disease (HD) causes severe motor impairments that are characterized by chorea, dystonia, and impaired fine motor control. The motor deficits include deficits in the control of the forelimb, but as yet there has been no comprehensive assessment of the impairments in arm, hand and digit movements as they are used in every-day tasks. The present study investigated the reaching of twelve HD subjects and twelve age-matched control subjects on a reach-to-eat task. The subjects were asked to reach for a small food item, with the left or the right hand, and then bring it to the mouth for eating. The task assesses the major features of skilled forelimb use, including orienting to a target, transport of the hand to a target, use of a precision grasp of the target, limb withdrawal to the mouth, and release of the food item into the mouth, and the integration of the movements into a smooth act. The movements were analyzed frame-by-frame by scoring the video record using an established movement element rating scale and by biometric analysis to describe limb trajectory. All HD subjects displayed greater reliance on more proximal movements in reaching. They also displayed overall jerkiness, a significant impairment in end point error correction (i.e. no smooth trajectories), deficits in timing and terminating motion (overshooting the target), impairments in rotation of the hand, abnormalities in grasping, and impairments in releasing the food item to the mouth. Although impairment in the control of the distal segments of the limb was common to all subjects, the intrusion of choreatic movements produced a pattern of highly variable performance between subjects. The quantification of reaching performance as measured by this analysis provides new insights into the impairments of HD subjects, allows an easily administered and inexpensive way to document the many skilled limb movement abnormalities, and relates the impairments to a real-world context. The protocol can serve as a useful clinical tool to evaluate innovative therapeutic interventions in HD such as physiotherapy, drug therapy, or functional neurosurgical procedures.

Clinical translation of cell transplantation in the brain.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: We identify the major recent advances in sourcing, preparation and delivery of primary and stem cell transplants into the brain, the preclinical studies in animal models and preliminary results on feasibility, safety and efficacy in an increasing range of human neurodegenerative diseases. RECENT FINDINGS: After a decade of debate concerning the reliability and safety of foetal cell transplantation in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, the conditions for eliminating side-effects and achieving more consistent efficacy are being implemented in renewed trials. In parallel, rapid advances are being made in identifying alternative sources of stem cells for transplantation, establishing the protocols for their reliable differentiation into specific neuronal phenotypes and translating these novel sources to cell therapy for patients in new clinical trials. Objective assessment of efficacy in patients does not always reveal outcomes that are as impressive as claimed - either in the preclinical animal models or by many commercial stem cell clinics - and even when stem cell therapies do appear to have been validated, the mechanisms are not always clear. SUMMARY: In spite of rapid progress, the conditions for reliable, well tolerated and effective cell therapies in brain disease are not yet fully established.

Dopaminergic Progenitors Derived From Epiblast Stem Cells Function Similarly to Primary VM-Derived Progenitors When Transplanted Into a Parkinson's Disease Model.

Neural transplantation in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD) offers to replace cells lost during the progression of the disease process. Primary fetal ventral mesencephalon (VM), the origin of bona fide midbrain dopaminergic (DAergic) precursors, is currently the gold standard source of cells for transplantation in PD. However, the use of tissue from this source raises ethical and logistical constraints necessitating the need for alternative supplies of donor cells. The requirement of any alternative donor cell source is to have the capability to generate authentic mature DAergic neurons, which could be utilized in cell-replacement strategies. Mouse pluripotent stem cells can efficiently generate electrochemically mature midbrain DAergic precursors in vitro using a stepwise control of FGF signaling. Here, we have compared DAergic transplants derived from two progenitor cell sources in an allograft system: mouse epiblast stem cells (EpiSC) and primary fetal mouse VM tissue. Cells were transplanted into the striatum of 6-OHDA lesioned mice pre-treated with L-DOPA. Drug-induced rotations, a number of motor tests and drug-induced abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) were assessed. Functional improvements were demonstrated post-transplantation in some behavioral tests, with no difference in graft volume or the number of TH immuno-positive cells in the grafts of the two transplant groups. L-DOPA-induced AIMs and amphetamine-induced AIMs were observed in both transplant groups, with no differences in rate or severity between the two groups. Collectively, in this mouse-to-mouse allograft system, we report no significant differences in the functional ability between the gold standard primary VM derived and pluripotent stem cell-derived DAergic transplants.